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Effects of Feedback in a Computer-Based Learning Environment on Students’ Learning Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis

Van der Kleij, Fabienne M., Feskens, Remco C. W., Eggen, Theo J. H. M.·2015·Review of Educational Research

DOI 10.3102/0034654314564881

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Abstract

In this meta-analysis, we investigated the effects of methods for providing item-based feedback in a computer-based environment on students’ learning outcomes. From 40 studies, 70 effect sizes were computed, which ranged from −0.78 to 2.29. A mixed model was used for the data analysis. The results show that elaborated feedback (EF; e.g., providing an explanation) produced larger effect sizes (0.49) than feedback regarding the correctness of the answer (KR; 0.05) or providing the correct answer (KCR; 0.32). EF was particularly more effective than KR and KCR for higher order learning outcomes. Effect sizes were positively affected by EF feedback, and larger effect sizes were found for mathematics compared with social sciences, science, and languages. Effect sizes were negatively affected by delayed feedback timing and by primary and high school. Although the results suggested that immediate feedback was more effective for lower order learning than delayed feedback and vice versa, no significant interaction was found.

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“One of the most important elements of the electronic educational environment is the ability to create interactive assignments and tests [4,5].”
Background
Impact of different practice testing methods on learning outcomes
Akbulut, Y. (2024) · European Journal of Education · doi:10.1111/ejed.12626 · Cited by 6
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Gillian, E., & Lew, R. (2018) · 3L The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies · doi:10.17576/3l-2018-2401-02 · Cited by 5
“…as a teaching technique for delivering instructions (Alklind Taylor 2013, Van der Kleij et al. 2015); however, to date, only a small number of experimental studies have examined the effectiveness of chunking as an instructional strategy in GBL (Munyofu et al. 2007, Van der Kleij et al. 2015).”
Background
A design experiment on technology‐based learning progress feedback in a graduate‐level online course
Kim, M. K. (2021) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1002/hbe2.308 · Cited by 6
Comparing the Effect of Contextualized Versus Generic Automated Feedback on Students' Scientific Argumentation
Olivera‐Aguilar, M., Lee, H., Pallant, A., Belur, V. K., Mulholland, M., & Liu, O. L. (2022) · ETS Research Report Series · doi:10.1002/ets2.12344 · Cited by 5
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Lai, T.-L., Chen, P.-Y., & Chou, C.-Y. (2017) · International Conference on Applied System Innovation · doi:10.1109/icasi.2017.7988584 · Cited by 5
“Feedback in web-based assessment Feedback is viewed as one of the most powerful means to improve learning [8].”
Background
Harnessing Early Spatial Learning Using Technological and Traditional Tools at Home
Lee, J., Ho, A., & Wood, E. (2018) · Mathematics education in the digital era · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-72381-5_11 · Cited by 5
Evaluation of Students’ Performance Based on Teaching Method Using LMS
Muchtar, F. B., Al-Adhaileh, M. H., Singh, P. K., Japang, M., Eri, Z. D., Haron, H., & Muchtar, F. (2020) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-3369-3_48 · Cited by 5
Modellierung der Effekte lernzielorientierter Tests nach dem Prinzip des mastery measurement innerhalb einer digitalen, formativen Leistungsmessung
Maier, U. (2020) · Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft · doi:10.1007/s11618-020-00958-6 · Cited by 5
Feasibility and Value of Using a GoPro Camera and iPad to Study Teacher-Student Assessment Feedback Interactions
der Kleij, F. M. V., Adie, L. E., & Cumming, J. (2019) · Methodology of educational measurement and assessment · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-18480-3_18 · Cited by 5
“While feedback can take many forms (Van der Kleij et al. 2015), feedback within classroom practice is generally realised through written and oral communications and interactions between teachers and students.”
Background
Artificial Intelligence as a Co-Tutor: Assessing the Impact in the Advanced Learning Virtual Classroom
Thompson, K. N., Chandler, K. L., Morgan, C., Khashabi, D., Delinski, E. A., & Durme, B. V. (2025) · Journal of Advanced Academics · doi:10.1177/1932202x251356323 · Cited by 5
“This is an important step as ineffective feedback to student responses is unlikely to result in improved learning (Van Der Kleij et al., 2015).”
Influential
Beyond the screen: Exploring the impact of GenAI-supported online learning on interaction, motivation, and self-regulation in higher education
Arslan, M. A., Arpacık, Ö., Küçük, S., & Durak, H. Y. (2026) · Journal of Research on Technology in Education · doi:10.1080/15391523.2026.2643173 · Cited by 4
How to Make Computer-Based Feedback More Productive: The Power of Erroneous Solutions
Wang, Z., Pei, X., Zhu, H., Gong, S., & Wang, E. (2024) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.1177/07356331241247592 · Cited by 5
“Despite the potential advantages, research has indicated that feedback varies in its effectiveness, and even informative feedback can be unproductive for learning (see Cai et al., 2023; Mertens et al., 2022; Van der Kleij et al., 2015 for reviews).”
How is the Impact of ICT-Assisted Experiments on Students’ Physics Learning: a Meta-analysis of K-12 Research
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Learning Rewards From Linguistic Feedback
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Development of a digital training for social and emotional competences for medical assistants in vocational education and training in Germany
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“And also, for computer-based learning environments it seems to be the case that detailed feedback is better than purely corrective feedback, especially in the area of higher order learning outcomes, such as problem-solving skills (van der Kleij et al. 2015).”
Background
The analysis of collective orientation and process feedback in relation to coordination and performance in interdependently working teams
Hagemann, V., Rieth, M., & Klasmeier, K. N. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0297565 · Cited by 7
Lasting benefits of a web-based training in understanding informal arguments
Wertgen, A. G., Münchow, H., Richter, T., & Tiffin‐Richards, S. P. (2025) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-024-00930-6 · Cited by 5
“Similarly, immediate and informative feedback can increase motivation (Deci, 1971) and help learners evaluate their strategies and learning outcomes, potentially improving meta-cognitive monitoring (Van der Kleij et al., 2015; Wisniewski et al., 2020).”
Individuell «automagisk» tilbakemelding på skriftlig eksamen
Mirmotahari, O., & Berg, Y. (2017) · Nordic Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.5324/njsteme.v1i1.2327 · Cited by 4
Different Types of Response-Based Feedback in Mathematics
Gal, T., & Hershkovitz, A. (2019) · International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge (LAK) · doi:10.1145/3303772.3303815 · Cited by 4
“Examining empirical evidence, Van der Kleij et al's [8] metaanalysis compared three types of feedback: (1) Simply noting whether the given answer is correct or incorrect; (2) Providing the learners with the correct answer if they were wrong; and (3) Any feedback that is more elaborated than the previous two types.”
Background
Avaliação do Estudante na Educação remota (ER) e à Distância (EAD): como desenvolver de modo efetivo, enfatizando a devolutiva
Volpe, F. A. P., Quintana, S. M., Borges, M. D. C., & Troncon, L. E. D. A. (2021) · Medicina (Ribeirão Preto) · doi:10.11606/issn.2176-7262.rmrp.2021.184773 · Cited by 4
Hyperparameter tuning for multi-label classification of feedbacks in online courses
Alonso, D. R., Cortés, C. Z., Zacatelco, H. C., & Carranza, J. L. C. (2021) · Journal of Intelligent & Fuzzy Systems · doi:10.3233/jifs-219238 · Cited by 4
“Thepredictionhasfourtypesofresults:completely correct, partially correct, partially incorrect or completely incorrect [9].”
Supporting Inquiry Learning: an Intellectual Mirror that Describes what It “Sees”
Yerushalmy, M., Olsher, S., Harel, R., & Chazan, D. (2022) · Digital Experiences in Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s40751-022-00120-3 · Cited by 4
“While simple verification of correctness is at times considered to be more effective than elaborated feedback, which explains why a response is correct or incorrect, further research conclusions have led to opposite claims: for example, van der Kleij et al. (2015) review of on-line personal feedback concluded that ela…”
Result
Pe(e)rfectly Skilled
Rusman, E., & Nadolski, R. J. (2023) · International Journal of Mobile and Blended Learning · doi:10.4018/ijmbl.318646 · Cited by 8
Digital teaching platforms: the use of dynamic functions to express mathematical content
Dyrvold, A., & Bergvall, I. (2023) · Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00313831.2023.2196555 · Cited by 6
“The e ﬀ ect size on learning outcomes is much larger for detailed feedback than for feedback regarding correctness or information about the correct answer (Van der Kleij et al., 2015).”
Ten Years after Sutton (2012): Quo Vadis Feedback Literacy? (A Bibliometric Study)
Gozali, I., Syahid, A., & Suryati, N. (2023) · Register Journal · doi:10.18326/register.v16i1.139-167 · Cited by 7
“As the names of the aforementioned journals suggest, research in feedback literacy seems to thrive in the higher education context, as does the finding of Chin and Chew (2021) and Van der Kleij et al. (2015) in the case of electronic feedback and computer-mediated feedback, respectively.”
Background
Effects of elaborate feedback during practice tests: Costs and benefits of retrieval prompts.
van den Broek, G. S. E., Segers, E., van Rijn, H., Takashima, A., & Verhoeven, L. T. W. (2019) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000212 · Cited by 7
“Benefits of elaborated feedback are stronger for complex than simple learning tasks (Van der Kleij et al., 2015), and this might also be the case for hints feedback.”
BackgroundResultInfluential

Authors: Van der Kleij, F. M., Feskens, R. C. W., & Eggen, T. J. H. M.
Affiliations: Cito Institute for Educational Measurement and University of Twente
Cito Institute for Educational Measurement
University of Twente (NL)
ORCID: Feskens, Remco C. W.
Eggen, Theo J. H. M.
Venue: Review of Educational Research
Publisher: American Educational Research Association (AERA)
Published: 2015-12
Volume: 85
Issue: 4
Pages: 475-511
ISSN: 0034-6543 (ISSN-L)
1935-1046
DOI: 10.3102/0034654314564881
OpenAlex: W2110661236
Cited by: 714
References: 76
Citations by year: 2026: 91 · 2025: 96 · 2024: 89 · 2023: 73 · 2022: 71 · 2021: 74 · 2020: 64 · 2019: 61 · 2018: 39 · 2017: 31 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 4
FWCI: 155.08
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Review of Educational Research (publishedVersion)
University of Twente Research Information (publishedVersion)
University of Twente Research Information (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Education › Student Assessment and Feedback
Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
Keywords: elaborated feedback, computer-assisted instruction, learning outcomes, feedback timing, immediate feedback, delayed feedback, higher-order learning, mathematics learning

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Effects of Feedback in a Computer-Based Learning Environment on Students’ Learning Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis

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