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Effects of Feedback in a Computer-Based Learning Environment on Students’ Learning Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis
Abstract
In this meta-analysis, we investigated the effects of methods for providing item-based feedback in a computer-based environment on students’ learning outcomes. From 40 studies, 70 effect sizes were computed, which ranged from −0.78 to 2.29. A mixed model was used for the data analysis. The results show that elaborated feedback (EF; e.g., providing an explanation) produced larger effect sizes (0.49) than feedback regarding the correctness of the answer (KR; 0.05) or providing the correct answer (KCR; 0.32). EF was particularly more effective than KR and KCR for higher order learning outcomes. Effect sizes were positively affected by EF feedback, and larger effect sizes were found for mathematics compared with social sciences, science, and languages. Effect sizes were negatively affected by delayed feedback timing and by primary and high school. Although the results suggested that immediate feedback was more effective for lower order learning than delayed feedback and vice versa, no significant interaction was found.
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“On the one hand, there is robust evidence that elaborate feedback with correct answers facilitates learning (Heckler and Mikula, 2016; Van der Kleij et al., 2015; Wisniewski et al., 2020).”
From Assessing the Impact and Underlying Pathways of Sequenced AI feedback on Student Learning (2026) · cites this paper as Van der Kleij et al., 2015
In the citing paper
“However, non-layered feedback can be effective without layering (e.g., (Heckler and Mikula, 2016; Van der Kleij et al., 2015; Wisniewski et al., 2020)).”
From Assessing the Impact and Underlying Pathways of Sequenced AI feedback on Student Learning (2026) · cites this paper as Van der Kleij et al., 2015
In the citing paper
“A particularly effective form of feedback provides the correct answer with an explanation of why it is the correct answer (Heckler and Mikula, 2016; Van der Kleij et al., 2015; Butler et al., 2013; Wisniewski et al., 2020).”
From Assessing the Impact and Underlying Pathways of Sequenced AI feedback on Student Learning (2026) · cites this paper as Van der Kleij et al., 2015
In the citing paper
“These conclusions are further supported by meta-analytic evidence: a synthesis of 40 studies comprising 70 effect sizes revealed that elaborated feedback (e.g., providing explanations) produced a substantially larger mean effect size than feedback limited to correctness judgments or feedback providing only the correct answer (Van der Kleij et al., 2015).”
From Assessing the Impact and Underlying Pathways of Sequenced AI feedback on Student Learning (2026) · cites this paper as Van der Kleij et al., 2015
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“Factors in the learning environment in schools include learning methods or strategies, class conditions, and learning atmosphere [4].”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Van der Kleij, F. M., Feskens, R. C. W., & Eggen, T. J. H. M.
- Affiliations
- Cito Institute for Educational Measurement and University of Twente
- Cito Institute for Educational Measurement
- University of Twente (NL)
- Venue
- Review of Educational Research
- Published
- 2015-12
- Volume
- 85
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 475-511
- ISSN
- 0034-6543 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1046
- OpenAlex
- W2110661236
- Cited by
- 714
- References
- 76
- Citations by year
- 2026: 91 · 2025: 96 · 2024: 89 · 2023: 73 · 2022: 71 · 2021: 74 · 2020: 64 · 2019: 61 · 2018: 39 · 2017: 31 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 4
- FWCI
- 155.08
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Review of Educational Research (publishedVersion)
- University of Twente Research Information (publishedVersion)
- University of Twente Research Information (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Student Assessment and Feedback
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Keywords
- elaborated feedback, computer-assisted instruction, learning outcomes, feedback timing, immediate feedback, delayed feedback, higher-order learning, mathematics learning
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