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Effects of Feedback in a Computer-Based Learning Environment on Students’ Learning Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis
Abstract
In this meta-analysis, we investigated the effects of methods for providing item-based feedback in a computer-based environment on students’ learning outcomes. From 40 studies, 70 effect sizes were computed, which ranged from −0.78 to 2.29. A mixed model was used for the data analysis. The results show that elaborated feedback (EF; e.g., providing an explanation) produced larger effect sizes (0.49) than feedback regarding the correctness of the answer (KR; 0.05) or providing the correct answer (KCR; 0.32). EF was particularly more effective than KR and KCR for higher order learning outcomes. Effect sizes were positively affected by EF feedback, and larger effect sizes were found for mathematics compared with social sciences, science, and languages. Effect sizes were negatively affected by delayed feedback timing and by primary and high school. Although the results suggested that immediate feedback was more effective for lower order learning than delayed feedback and vice versa, no significant interaction was found.
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“On the one hand, there is robust evidence that elaborate feedback with correct answers facilitates learning (Heckler and Mikula, 2016; Van der Kleij et al., 2015; Wisniewski et al., 2020).”
From Assessing the Impact and Underlying Pathways of Sequenced AI feedback on Student Learning (2026) · cites this paper as Van der Kleij et al., 2015
In the citing paper
“However, non-layered feedback can be effective without layering (e.g., (Heckler and Mikula, 2016; Van der Kleij et al., 2015; Wisniewski et al., 2020)).”
From Assessing the Impact and Underlying Pathways of Sequenced AI feedback on Student Learning (2026) · cites this paper as Van der Kleij et al., 2015
In the citing paper
“A particularly effective form of feedback provides the correct answer with an explanation of why it is the correct answer (Heckler and Mikula, 2016; Van der Kleij et al., 2015; Butler et al., 2013; Wisniewski et al., 2020).”
From Assessing the Impact and Underlying Pathways of Sequenced AI feedback on Student Learning (2026) · cites this paper as Van der Kleij et al., 2015
In the citing paper
“These conclusions are further supported by meta-analytic evidence: a synthesis of 40 studies comprising 70 effect sizes revealed that elaborated feedback (e.g., providing explanations) produced a substantially larger mean effect size than feedback limited to correctness judgments or feedback providing only the correct answer (Van der Kleij et al., 2015).”
From Assessing the Impact and Underlying Pathways of Sequenced AI feedback on Student Learning (2026) · cites this paper as Van der Kleij et al., 2015
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“As numerous reviews of feedback effectiveness demonstrate, positive effects of feedback on learning cannot be guaranteed (e.g. Kluger & DeNisi, 1996; Shute, 2008; Van der Kleij et al., 2015).”
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“…learning when it is frequent and meaningful (Cavanaugh et al., 2009); includes elaborated explanations as opposed to simply indicating, for example, that a response is correct or incorrect (Van der Kleij et al., 2015); and is used by the teacher to adjust instruction (Pulham & Graham, 2018).”
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BackgroundInfluentialPrevention–Permission–Promotion: A Review of Approaches to Errors in Learning
Wong, S. S. H., & Lim, S. W. H. (2018) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2018.1501693 · Cited by 53
A Qualitative Analysis of Implementing E-Learning during the COVID-19 Lockdown
Lozano, C. P., Bergés, M. S., Gil, M. L., & Bustamante, J. C. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13063317 · Cited by 53
“In fact, [78,81] showed that feedback that explained why an answer is correct or incorrect had more positive effects on learning.”
BackgroundKuklick, L., Greiff, S., & Lindner, M. A. (2023) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104785 · Cited by 58
A systematic review of AI-based feedback in educational settings
Durak, H. Y., & Onan, A. (2025) · Journal of Computational Social Science · doi:10.1007/s42001-025-00428-1 · Cited by 78
Using video technology to enable student voice in assessment feedback
der Kleij, F. M. V., Adie, L. E., & Cumming, J. (2016) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12536 · Cited by 50
Mikula, B. D., & Heckler, A. F. (2017) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.13.010122 · Cited by 55
“Furthermore, computer-based training with feedback has proven to be effective in a wide range of topics [29,30], allowing for an array of feedback formats, providing individualized feedback to each student.”
BackgroundAssessing the use of computer-based assessment-feedback in teaching digital accountants
Helfaya, A. (2018) · Accounting Education · doi:10.1080/09639284.2018.1501716 · Cited by 50
“Accordingly, the importance of assessment and feedback in the T&L process in HE is widely acknowledged especially with the growing popularity of the e-Assessment-Feed-back for learning approaches in the digital age (Al-Htaybat et al., 2018; Mihret et al., 2017; Van der Kleij et al., 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialFormative feedback and scaffolding for developing complex problem solving and modelling outcomes
Frank, B. M., Simper, N., & Kaupp, J. (2017) · European Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1080/03043797.2017.1299692 · Cited by 52
Fong, C. J., Williams, K. M., Williamson, Z. H., Lin, S., Kim, Y. W., & Schallert, D. L. (2017) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-017-9658-y · Cited by 50
Berndt, M., Strijbos, J.-W., & Fischer, F. (2017) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-017-0343-z · Cited by 54
“…(e.g., information about mistakes or on how to proceed), has a more positive effect on performance compared to feedback providing merely an evaluation or rather general comments (e.g., information about results) (Hattie and Timperley 2007; Narciss 2008; Shute 2008; Van der Kleij et al. 2015).”
BackgroundChildren and Online Privacy Protection: Empowerment from Cognitive Defense Strategies
Andrews, J. C., Walker, K., & Kees, J. (2019) · Journal of Public Policy & Marketing · doi:10.1177/0743915619883638 · Cited by 48
“Researchers have found such feedback to be more effective on learning outcomes than simple statements of whether the answer was correct (Van der Kleij, Feskens, and Eggen 2015).”
BackgroundHan, J., Batterham, P. J., Calear, A. L., Wu, Y., Xue, J., & van Spijker, B. A. J. (2018) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2017.11.002 · Cited by 47
Xie, C., Cheung, A., Lau, W. W. F., & Slavin, R. E. (2020) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2020.101565 · Cited by 49
AI-Enabled Assessment and Feedback Mechanisms for Language Learning
Yeşilyurt, Y. E. (2023) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-6684-9893-4.ch002 · Cited by 47
Effects of Feedback on Self‐Evaluations and Self‐Regulation in Elementary School
van Loon, M. H., & Roebers, C. M. (2017) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3347 · Cited by 56
“That is, feedback should address performance on individual items and precisely elaborate on reasons why performance is correct or incorrect, rather than just addressing correctness (Miller & Geraci, 2011; Nietfeld, Cao, & Osborne, 2006; Renner & Renner, 2001; Van der Kleij et al., 2015).”
BackgroundPark, S., & Beretvas, S. N. (2018) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-018-1156-y · Cited by 47
Lim, L.-A., Gasevic, D., Matcha, W., Ahmad Uzir, N., & Dawson, S. (2021) · LAK21: 11th International Learning Analytics and Knowledge Conference · doi:10.1145/3448139.3448174 · Cited by 47
“flect on their current use of tactics and strategies, and adapt their self-regulation in more optimal ways [32].”
BackgroundAdmiraal, W., Vermeulen, J., & Bulterman-Bos, J. A. (2020) · Technology Pedagogy and Education · doi:10.1080/1475939x.2020.1825992 · Cited by 52
“In a meta-analysis of item-based feedback in computer-based environments, Van der Kleij et al. (2015) examined the findings of 40 studies.”
BackgroundBeckker, K. D., Witte, K. D., & Campenhout, G. V. (2021) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2021.06.022 · Cited by 55
Beauchemin, N., Charland, P., Karran, A. J., Boasen, J., Tadson, B., Sénécal, S., & Léger, P. (2024) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2024.1416683 · Cited by 53
Affective Computing for Learning in Education: A Systematic Review and Bibliometric Analysis
Yuvaraj, R., Mittal, R., Prince, A. A., & Huang, J. S. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15010065 · Cited by 66
Rasi, P., & Vuojärvi, H. (2017) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12587 · Cited by 46
Summative and Formative Feedback
Brookhart, S. M. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316832134.005 · Cited by 47
The impact of virtual technology on students’ creativity: A meta-analysis
Wang, Y., Liu, W., Yu, X., Li, B., & Wang, Q. (2024) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105044 · Cited by 60
Faber, J. M., & Visscher, A. J. (2018) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2018.03.008 · Cited by 43
“More complex tasks are those requiring elaborated feedback (Van der Kleij et al., 2015), a finding confirmed by studies on the effectiveness of DFATs on algebra (Bokhove & Drijvers, 2012) and general mathematics achievement (Wang, 2011).”
ResultEvaluating ChatGPT’s Decimal Skills and Feedback Generation in a Digital Learning Game
Nguyen, H. A., Stec, H., Hou, X., Di, S., & McLaren, B. M. (2023) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-42682-7_19 · Cited by 49
Metadata
- Authors
- Van der Kleij, F. M., Feskens, R. C. W., & Eggen, T. J. H. M.
- Affiliations
- Cito Institute for Educational Measurement and University of Twente
- Cito Institute for Educational Measurement
- University of Twente (NL)
- Venue
- Review of Educational Research
- Published
- 2015-12
- Volume
- 85
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 475-511
- ISSN
- 0034-6543 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1046
- OpenAlex
- W2110661236
- Cited by
- 714
- References
- 76
- Citations by year
- 2026: 91 · 2025: 96 · 2024: 89 · 2023: 73 · 2022: 71 · 2021: 74 · 2020: 64 · 2019: 61 · 2018: 39 · 2017: 31 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 4
- FWCI
- 155.08
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Review of Educational Research (publishedVersion)
- University of Twente Research Information (publishedVersion)
- University of Twente Research Information (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Student Assessment and Feedback
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Keywords
- elaborated feedback, computer-assisted instruction, learning outcomes, feedback timing, immediate feedback, delayed feedback, higher-order learning, mathematics learning
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