Haptic Guidance Can Enhance Motor Learning of a Steering Task

“One possible reason for these negative results is that guidance disrupts motor learning because the user learns to rely on the guidance and fails to learn the motor commands required to perform the desired task unassisted (Schmidt & Bjork, 1992).”

“Thus, it appears that the motor system requires a particular level of challenge to learn well (Guadagnoli & Lee, 2004), and haptic guidance, frequent KR, and blocked practice typically decrease challenge and thereby impair learning.”

“For instance, haptic guidance enhanced motor learning in a steering task (Marchal-Crespo & Reinkensmeyer, 2008b) and motor adaption in wheelchair driving (Marchal-Crespo et al., 2010).”

“Another rationale, valid for tasks like walking or driving in which poor performance could lead to injury, is that assistance allows people to practice a task more intensively by making the task safe [28,46].”

“Further, for applications such as haptic guidance for training, kinesthetic-based haptic feedback devices have been ineffective when it comes to demonstrating retention of skill or transfer to a similar task [57,80,81], despite their success at enhancing performance when the individual is coupled to the device [82].”

“This approach has proven successful in prompting both short-term and long-term motor learning while reducing performance error [53,54].”

“…3D movements are visualized in virtual environments that offer the possibility to simulate different real or imaginary activities of daily living that can be adapted to the patients’ needs, while providing a motivating (Lee et al. 2003) and safe environment (Marchal-Crespo and Reinkensmeyer 2008).”

“As 1 3 concluded by others (Marchal-Crespo and Reinkensmeyer 2008a), it remains challenging to design effective and unambiguous haptic augmented feedback on top of rendered task forces in a virtual scenario.”

“Literature has suggested that physically guiding may decrease motor learning [54,71].”

“Furthermore, Marchal-Crespo and Reinkensmeyer (2008a) noted that, during learning of a timing-based task, haptic guidance limited generalization of performance, i.e. that individuals did not generalize the improvement of their timing error to untrained timing actions.”

“…complex tasks such as skiing (Wulf et al. 1998) and driving a vehicle learn to time their movement better with cues provided by haptic guidance, such as the moment to begin a turn when encountering a sharp curve or the moment to rectify after a curve (Marchal-Crespo and Reinkensmeyer 2008b).”

“In [16], a haptic guidance group was better at learning when to initiate turns than a no guidance group, resulting in less steering error.”

“A first group of users trains without any haptic feedback (manual training, MT), while the second group receives guidance feedback towards the waypoints (haptic training, HT) 45 .”

“Such a haptic guidance concept outperformed a control group without haptic guidance in terms of driving accuracy in a steering task (Marchal-Crespo & Reinkensmeyer, 2008) and in a wheelchair driving task (Marchal-Crespo, Furumasu, & Reinkensmeyer, 2010).”

“Marchal-Crespo and Reinkensmeyer [25] showed that there was a significant improvement of the GA groups over the practice groups in the very first stages of training, but that this improvement quickly diminished and became insignificant as training continued.”

“Studies of motor control suggested that physically assisting a movement may decrease motor learning [51,52] by changing the dynamics of the tasks, reducing the appropriate error signal of motor performance necessary to perform the task successfully, and decreasing motor output and attention during training [53,54].”

“Recent research has shown that delivering proprioceptive prescriptive information of circular hand movement trajectories with an elliptical velocity pattern (passive practice) leads to a significant improvement in the active reproduction of this new motor skill [28,29] and robots can assist in learning other motor tas…”

“For unimpaired people, haptic guidance can help in learning the timing of a complex trajectory [21] or steering or hitting task [22], [47], [48], but has provided little measurable benefit or a learning decrement, compared to visual demonstration [19], [20].”

“These findings support the results of previous studies.(38) 39 Lastly, there is moderate evidence that VTFB instructions could support the athlete in practising and fine-tuning a previously learnt movement.”

“Haptic feedback on the steering wheel has been found to be effective in inducing faster obstacle evasion[14], and in enhancing motor learning on a steering task [15].”

“Some wheelchair studies have also shown the advantage of training maneuvering skills in VEs.(106) However, in manipulative and explorational activities for children with disabilities, the significance of direct physical manipulation of objects on development of perceptual, cognitive and social skills has been highligh…”

“Theycanadoptappropriateperception strategies and effective interaction methods based on the objects’ attribute information [2].”

“shown positive results as [17], [19], [25], regardless of whether the participants were adults or children.”

“First of all, it is difficult to construct the patient specific model of human motor system [53], or predefine trajectory for each individual, which sometimes needs the involvement of a human therapist [54].”

“These findings were supported in later explo-450 rations of the effect of haptic guidance on training of a steering task (Crespo & Reinkensmeyer, 2008).”

“Several studies have reported that haptic guidance can improve motor skills [2, 4]; however, there are also results showing that haptic guidance does not have a significant effect on learning motor skills [8, 30, 32].”

“In these studies, it was often concluded that haptic guidance might not be effective in human motor learning [11] except in a few cases [12].”

“This fact will presumably cause a decrease in the amount of assistance with the course of the therapy, which makes this system to match the faded guidance principle [83], that is, less guidance is provided as practice progresses.”

“showed that performance-based progressive guidance can lead to faster improvement of steering skill than can fixed-gain guidance [20].”

“Assistive control algorithms have been criticized by studies that suggest that physically guiding the motion during a task can actually reduce motor learning, a phenomenon referred to as the guidance hypothesis (Marchal-Crespo and Reinkensmeyer 2008).”

“Or as in [23], [24], the control gain was set to adapt to the subjects’ performance to reduce error jump.”

“Crespo et al. [6] developed a wheelchair steering AAN controller.”

“Crespo and Reinkensmeyer [16] showed that “fixed guidance” (GA) produced only “slightly better immediate retention than did training without guidance,” but did not show that this improvement was statistically significant.”

“erature [6], [7], we did not consider a control group that do”

“several studies have shown that such training can lead to misinterpretation of feedback [12], a dependence on guidance [13], and an inability to demonstrate skill transfer [14].”

“For steering, we compute e s ( = θ s − θ s,d ) as in the conventional predictive form of haptic steering guidance [16], [18].”

“…the overall mixed evidence of benefits of robot guidance for motor learning (e.g., Reinkensmeyer and Patton 2009), there is some indication that timing of movements might be susceptible to robot support (e.g., Lüttgen and Heuer, in press; Marchal-Crespo and Reinkensmeyer 2008; Milot et al. 2010).”

“Similarly, assist-as-needed (AAN) strategies attempt to reduce slacking by adapting robotic assistance according to the user’s performance via adjustment of either the controller [26, 27] or task parameters [28, 29] with a performancebased adaptive control law.”

“There is evidence, that this kind of guidance from robotic device is effective for motor learning for healthy subjects [5].”

“Haptic Interfaces have a wide spectrum of applications, including navigation [5-8], tele-rehabilitation [9, 10], telesurgery [11, 12], as well as micro-manipulation [13, 14].”

“[13] concluded that haptic guidance can benefit short-term learning of a steering-type task of a simulated vehicle and improve performance during training.”

“Examples are when to turn a steering wheel (Marchal-Crespo and Reinkensmeyer 2008a; Marchal-Crespo et al. 2010) or when to hit a pinball (Milot et al. 2010).”

“In a similar task, Marchal Crespo and Reinkensmeyer (2008) and Marchal-Crespo, McHughen, Cramer, and Reinkensmeyer (2010) reported both short-term and long-term benefits of haptic guidance.”

“Actuated haptic interfaces are often used for haptic guidance-based training for teleoperation, a method that has been demonstrated to help users learn motor tasks in previous studies [20], [21].”

“In view of the inconsistent findings, it is quite likely that tasks and task characteristics differ in their susceptibility to the effects of robotic guidance (Reinkensmeyer, Galvez, Marchal-Crespo, Wolbrecht, & Bobrow, 2007).”

“…a robotic wheelchair training system that used a combination of line tracking and haptic feedback to provide an automated driver’s training program, which was motivated by a prior study that found haptic guidance can improve the learning of a steering task (Marchal Crespo & Reinkensmeyer, 2008).”

“in a wheelchair driving task where haptic guidance has been adapted as needed [17].”

“Robotically assisting subjects to perform these normative movements has led to moderate improvements in training outcomes compared to unassisted practice (Kahn et al. 2006; Bluteau et al. 2008; Marchal-Crespo and Reinkensmeyer 2008).”

“Moreover, as such a feedback can improve user understanding while performing a given task, haptic feedback could be seen as an effective rehabilitation tool to train severely disabled people to drive a powered wheelchair [15].”

“, 2006; Vidoni and Boyd, 2008) and is linked to motor control learning (Rose et al., 2004; Crespo and Reinkensmeyer, 2008; Marchal-Crespo and Reinkensmeyer, 2009).”

“The path guidance methods have been shown to reduce spatial error in driving [13] and rowing tasks [9], with learners in the former task deriving part of the benefit from learning when to initiate turns [13].”

“Haptic interfaces is currently applied in several applications and many fields such as tele-navigation [2-5], tele-rehabilitation [6, 7], tele-surgery [8.”

“Further, some types of kinesthetic haptic assistance, while beneficial for enhancing performance, have been ineffective when it comes to demonstrating retention of skill or transfer to a similar task [18,19].”

“Earlier works suggest that haptics in a VLE contribute positively to the users’ learning outcome [13] and perception of virtual object shapes [14].”

“…that used HG or EA robotic trainings, where faster execution times (Feygin et al., 2002; Bluteau et al., 2008) and improved timed movement for the task (Marchal Crespo and Reinkensmeyer, 2008; Luttgen and Heuer, 2013; Marchal-Crespo et al., 2013, 2014) were noted following HG or EA training.”

“These aspects initiated techniques to adapt the assistance policy and the assistance level based on user’s skill level, such as ‘‘assistance-as-needed’’ [22] followed by ‘‘guidance-as-needed’’ [3,4], ‘‘virtual teacher’’ [12,23], ‘‘progressive guiding torque’’ [24], etc.”

“In the context of a steering task such as when driving, a number of studies have implemented OAHG in the form of a guiding force directed toward the center of the path [9, 15, 21, 35, 53].”

“jp for individual stages have been proposed by now [10], [11].”

“With advancements in augmented reality for assistance systems, such as superimposed visualizations (Yeh and Wickens 2001) or haptic assistance (Rosenberg 1993; Abbott et al. 2007; Marchal-Crespo and Reinkensmeyer 2008; Abbink et al. 2012; Passenberg et al. 2013), humans must learn to rely on additional cues generated…”

“Further, some types of kinesthetic haptic guidance, while beneficial for enhancing performance, have been ineffective when it comes to demonstrating retention of skill or transfer to a similar task [21], [22].”

“This is in line 61 with a previous work suggesting that haptic guidance produces 62 better learning performance in immediate retention tests and 63 that this performance decreases over time [50].”

“The fact that a single session of HG helped improve the timing errors of the current survivors post-chronic stroke supports other studies that used HG robotic training interventions for a timing task among healthy individuals,[5,25,34,39], especially for the seniors in Bouchard et al.”

“Indeed, there has been considerable evidence to show that guidance conditions that do not require any active input from the learner, as seen when participants are passively moved throughout practice, either with manual guidance or with the help of a mechanical or robotic device, fail to result in positive motor outcom…”

“haptic assistance, although performance enhancing, have been ineffective when it comes to demonstrating retention of skill or transfer to a similar task [6], [14], [15].”

“…commonly-used interfaces providing a force feedback to attract the user toward the safer or the desired directions while driving a power-wheelchair (Crespo and Reinkensmeyer, 2008; Marchal-Crespo et al., 2010a; Yoon et al., 2017) or assisting target-pointing/hitting tasks (Powell and O’Malley,…”

“Concurrent vibrotactile feedback is considered more suitable for shorter training sessions, as concurrent corrective feedback might lead to a dependency on external feedback, which complicates the learning process [13,14,18].”

“Indeed, it has been suggested that the timing of movement is indeed especially sensitive to haptic information (Marchal-Crespo & Reinkensmeyer, 2008; Milot, Marchal-Crespo, Green, Cramer, & Reinkensmeyer, 2010).”

“…the role of haptic stimuli in motor learning (Armstrong, 1970; Rosenberg, 1992; Gillespie et al., 1998; Feygin et al., 2002; O’Malley and Gupta, 2003; Tsutsui and Imanaka, 2003; Kahn et al., 2006; Liu et al., 2006; Grindlay, 2008; Marchal-Crespo and Reinkensmeyer, 2008; Lee and Choi, 2010).”