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Long-term Psychological and Occupational Effects of Providing Hospital Healthcare during SARS Outbreak
Open accessAbstract
Healthcare workers (HCWs) found the 2003 outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) to be stressful, but the long-term impact is not known.From 13 to 26 months after the SARS outbreak, 769 HCWs at 9 Toronto hospitals that treated SARS patients and 4 Hamilton hospitals that did not treat SARS patients completed a survey of several adverse outcomes.Toronto HCWs reported significantly higher levels of burnout (p = 0.019), psychological distress (p<0.001), and posttraumatic stress (p<0.001).Toronto workers were more likely to have reduced patient contact and work hours and to report behavioral consequences of stress.Variance in adverse outcomes was explained by a protective effect of the perceived adequacy of training and support and by a provocative effect of maladaptive coping style and other individual factors.The results reinforce the value of effective staff support and training in preparation for future outbreaks.S evere acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) emerged from Guangdong Province, People's Republic of China, in November 2002 and spread rapidly; transmission occurred primarily in hospitals, often to healthcare workers (HCWs).Although initially virtually no literature was available to guide expectations of how an emerging infection would affect the psychological well-being of hospital staff (1), by the summer of 2003 the acute psychological impact of SARS had been widely studied.Significant emotional distress was present in 18%-57% of HCWs (2-6) and was associated with quarantine (7), fear of contagion (6,8,9), concern for family (5,9,10), job stress (6,9), interpersonal isolation (6,9), perceived stigma (6,7,11), conscription of nonspecialists into infectious disease work (12), and attachment insecurity (10).Working in SARS-affected hospitals could have been traumatic for some HCWs (i.e., an event that "threatens an individual's life or physical integrity and involves a subjective response of fear, helplessness, or horror" [13]).Before the SARS coronavirus was identified (14-17), SARS was an infection of unknown cause, unknown mode of transmission, global spread, and high mortality, characteristics that generally increase perceived risk (18).However, although the SARS outbreak was acutely stressful, the longer term impact of SARS on HCWs is unknown.Understanding the enduring occupational and psychological effects of working during this SARS outbreak is important because it involves the well-being of large numbers of HCWs.Additionally, this information has wider relevance to health systems in planning for emerging infections, including pandemic influenza (http://www.who.int/csr/disease/influenza/inforesources/en) and the potential for bioterrorism (19).
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“Following the outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome in 2003, health-care workers reported chronic stress effects for months to years.4”
From COVID-19: a heavy toll on health-care workers (2021) · cites this paper as [4]
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“Such an extraordinary event will have long-term effects on mental health according to previous studies of epidemics and quarantine (Maunder et al., 2006; Brooks S. K. et al., 2020; Kisely et al., 2020).”
From Traumatic Stress in Healthcare Workers during COVID-19 Pandemic: A Review of the Immediate Impact (2020) · cites this paper as Maunder et al., 2006
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PANDEMİ DÖNEMİNDE AMELİYATHANE ÇALIŞANLARINDA TÜKENMİŞLİĞİN DEĞERLENDİRİLMESİ
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Mental Health: Pandemics, Epidemics and Tau Protein
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“The current results show that a significant proportion of HCWs had insomnia and felt worthless, causing ongoing psychological distress, as reported regarding previous epidemics, such as the SARS outbreak [121].”
ResultRestrictive measures and substance use reporting: New evidence from the COVID-19 pandemic
Rebucini, A., Origo, F., Schionato, F., & Romolo, F. S. (2023) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2023.104238 · Cited by 2
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Psychological Risk Factors for Healthcare Professionals in the Epidemic Process
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“At the same time, when it is considered the evidence that stress perception may decrease at the time of performance [12] and the long-term effects of stress [13, 14, 15], it is possible to say that health professionals have been damaged in terms of mental health in this process.”
BackgroundLONG-TERM IMMUNOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF COVID-19 ON HEALTH
KADAM, H., KAPHARE, G., AVHAD, R., Aher, P. R., GADE, N., BAJAIT, M., Talele, S. G., & Jadhav, A. G. (2022) · International Journal of Applied Pharmaceutics · doi:10.22159/ijap.2022v14i1.42311 · Cited by 2
“Other factors like fear, [62] adverse reactions to imprisonment or isolation, [65] lack of sufficient information from authorities (regarding well-being and duration of quarantine), and terror of the financial loss.”
BackgroundFlórez, J. F. M., Isaza, I., & Osorio, J. D. G. (2021) · Pensamiento Psicológico · doi:10.11144/javerianacali.ppsi19.epas · Cited by 2
“…efectos psicológicos en la población durante los primeros días/semanas del connamiento, como miedo a la infección, sentimientos de frustración y tristeza, estrés psicológico y ansiedad (Bai et al., 2004; Braunack-Mayer et al., 2013; Maunder et al., 2006; Taylor et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2011).”
BackgroundJohnson, S. S. (2020) · American Journal of Health Promotion · doi:10.1177/0890117120920488a · Cited by 3
“Perceived adequacy of training and support had a protective effect.(18) There has never been a more critical moment to heed Amaryllis’ guidance about humanizing the workplace to provide the resources, logistical assistance, psychological support, and opportunities for recovery health-care professionals will so despera…”
BackgroundProtocol for the Canadian Pregnancy During the COVID-19 Pandemic studyPreprint
Giesbrecht, G. F. (2020) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/w8hd5 · Cited by 2
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COVID-19 Pandemic and Electroconvulsive Therapy
Singh, A., & Khanna, P. (2020) · Journal of Neuroanaesthesiology and Critical Care · doi:10.1055/s-0040-1714916 · Cited by 1
Radina, M. E., & Sharp, E. A. (2019) · Family Science Review · doi:10.26536/nppo1246 · Cited by 1
Psychological factors that affect mental resilience in crises
Esmail, M. E., Bukhary, A. B. M., Addas, A. K., Raei, M. A., Alzayed, A. A., Alreemi, Y. M., Harban, Y. S. A., Alwani, S., Alfuraih, T. A., Alhawaj, A. H., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Community Medicine and Public Health · doi:10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20214860 · Cited by 1
“For instance, a previous study reported that resilience against mental health manifestations was significantly associated with receiving adequate experience and training during the SARS outbreak.(18) Other similar investigations have furtherly reported this.”
ResultHealing the Healers: Addressing Moral Injury in Healthcare Workers During COVID-19
Naiman, A., Amsalem, D., Bergman, M., & Neria, Y. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-99680-2_29 · Cited by 1
Ferreira, R. N., Barroso, A. C. D. S., Barbosa, L. Z., Dias, V. M., NASCIMENTO, L. C., Amaral, F. N. L., Ramos, G. S., & Cunha, K. R. F. (2024) · Contribuciones a las Ciencias Sociales · doi:10.55905/revconv.17n.1-182 · Cited by 1
Odjel za zdravstvene studije, S. U. S., Buljubašić, A., Gizdić, A., Odjel za kliničku psihologiju i zdravlje, A. S. U. B., Odjel za psihologiju, S. V., Drmić, S., Odjel za psihijatriju, K. B. D., Murn, L., Odjel za psihijatriju, K. B. D., Antičević, V., et al. (2024) · Socijalna psihijatrija · doi:10.24869/spsih.2023.183 · Cited by 1
“…syndrome (SARS) in 2003 in Toronto became evident approximately two years (13-26 months) after the epidemic had ended, with healthcare professionals displaying significantly elevated levels of burnout syndrome, psychological stress and post-traumatic stress disorder during that period (3).”
Canlı, D., & Can, S. (2024) · Journal of Surgery and Medicine · doi:10.28982/josam.7840 · Cited by 2
Osorio, L. M. C., Arango, L. M. L., Babativa, M. T. D., & Bernal, L. Á. R. (2024) · Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría · doi:10.1016/j.rcp.2024.04.006 · Cited by 1
Bem-estar espiritual e estresse percebido em profissionais de enfermagem da atenção primária à saúde
Gava, F. G. S., & Turrini, R. N. T. (2025) · Revista Brasileira de Enfermagem · doi:10.1590/0034-7167-2024-0193pt · Cited by 1
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Coleman, B. L., Gutmanis, I., Maunder, R., & McGeer, A. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1628884 · Cited by 1
Self-citationCanivet, C., Hébert, T., Boilard, É., Morin, C. M., & Deslauriers, J. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1560129 · Cited by 1
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Modeling the Psychosocial Effects of Terror or Natural Disasters for Response Preparation
Ding, A. W. (2007) · The Journal of Defense Modeling and Simulation Applications Methodology Technology · doi:10.1177/154851290700400403 · Cited by 1
“Several studies have examined the psychological impacts of SARS on health care workers in Hong Kong, Singapore, and Toronto [21, 22, 23, 24] and reveal that health care workers suffer much more psychological distress, including anxiety, fear of contagion, feelings of stigmatization, loneliness, boredom, anger, burnout…”
BackgroundInfluentialEpiBasket: how e-commerce tools can improve epidemiological preparedness
Xing, W., Hejblum, G., & Valleron, A. (2013) · Emerging Health Threats Journal · doi:10.3402/ehtj.v6i0.19748 · Cited by 1
“The database of questions was based on the 59 KAP papers (listed below as references (1-59)) identified in a previous analysis of the SARS epidemiology literature (60).”
Method(2007) · Psychiatric Annals · doi:10.3928/00485713-20071101-08 · Cited by 1
Hilfiker, L., & Ganguly, S. (2020) · Disaster Resilience and Green Growth · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-7679-9_2 · Cited by 1
Gumelar, G., & Sy, V. R. (2020) · JPPP - Jurnal Penelitian dan Pengukuran Psikologi · doi:10.21009/jppp.092.01 · Cited by 1
Management of Chronic Disease in Pandemic Situations: Teleconsultation in Patients with Chronic Pain
Pereira, R. M., Cerqueira, M., & Barbosa, A. C. (2021) · Pain Medicine · doi:10.1093/pm/pnab074 · Cited by 1
The Burnout amongst doctors of obstetrics and gynecology department during covid-19 pandemic
Ahmed, K. I., Ahmed, S., Kahloon, L. E., Noureen, H., Iftikhar, T., & Bilqees, H. (2021) · Journal of Rawalpindi Medical College · doi:10.37939/jrmc.v25i4.1700 · Cited by 1
YALMAN, F., & SANCAR, T. (2022) · Ayna Klinik Psikoloji Dergisi · doi:10.31682/ayna.952551 · Cited by 1
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Babanov, S. A., Sazonova, O., Gavryushin, M. Y., Ostryakova, N. А., & Kuvshinova, N. Y. (2022) · Terapevt (General Physician) · doi:10.33920/med-12-2206-03 · Cited by 1
Occupational Health and Safety in the Healthcare Sector
Modenese, A., & Gobba, F. (2022) · MDPI eBooks · doi:10.3390/books978-3-0365-4593-6 · Cited by 1
Risk perception of contracting COVID-19 among healthcare workers
Griep, R. H., Silva‐Costa, A., Santos, R. D. S., Alves, D. D. S. B., & Rotenberg, L. (2022) · Revista Brasileira de Saúde Ocupacional · doi:10.1590/2317-6369/18721en2022v47ecov4 · Cited by 1
Sitnikova, M., Proshina, E. A., Deviaterikova, A. A., Malykh, S. B., Moiseeva, O., & Ananieva, M. (2022) · International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science Engineering and Education · doi:10.23947/2334-8496-2022-10-2-27-37 · Cited by 1
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Metadata
- Authors
- Maunder, R., Lancee, W., Balderson, K., Bennett, J., Borgundvaag, B., Evans, S., Fernandes, C., Goldbloom, D., Gupta, M., Hunter, J., McGillis Hall, L., Nagle, L., Pain, C., Peczeniuk, S., Raymond, G., Read, N., Rourke, S., Steinberg, R., Stewart, T., VanDeVelde-Coke, S., Veldhorst, G., & Wasylenki, D.
- Affiliations
- Mount Sinai Hospital (CA)
- Scarborough Health Network (CA)
- Sunnybrook Health Science Centre (CA)
- University of Toronto (CA)
- St. Michael's Hospital (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Maunder, Robert
- Lancee, William
- Bennett, Jocelyn
- Borgundvaag, Bjug
- Goldbloom, David
- Hunter, Jonathan
- Pain, Clare
- Steinberg, Rosalie
- Stewart, Thomas
- ORCID
- Venue
- Emerging Infectious Diseases
- Published
- 2006
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 1924-1932
- ISSN
- 1080-6040 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3291360
- OpenAlex
- W1985834457
- Cited by
- 1,109
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 121 · 2022: 223 · 2021: 335 · 2020: 259 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 1 · 2013: 5
- FWCI
- 6.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Emerging infectious diseases (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research (67807)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Healthcare professionals’ stress and burnout
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Occupational Health and Burnout
- Keywords
- SARS, healthcare workers, burnout, psychological distress, post-traumatic stress, occupational stress, coping styles, staff training and support, hospital staff well-being, stigma, working time reduction, insecure attachment, risk perception, 2003 SARS outbreak
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Data Collection, Disease Outbreaks, Female, Humans, Male, Ontario, Personnel, Hospital, Regression Analysis, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus
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