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Exploring Braak’s Hypothesis of Parkinson’s Disease
Open accessAbstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder for which there is no cure. Most patients suffer from sporadic PD, which is likely caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Braak’s hypothesis states that sporadic PD is caused by a pathogen that enters the body via the nasal cavity, and subsequently is swallowed and reaches the gut, initiating Lewy pathology (LP) in the nose and the digestive tract. A staging system describing the spread of LP from the peripheral to the central nervous system was also postulated by the same research group. There has been criticism to the Braak’s hypothesis, in part because not all patients follow the proposed staging system. Here, we review literature that either supports or criticizes the Braak’s hypothesis, focused on the enteric route, digestive problems in patients, the spread of LP on a tissue and a cellular level, and the toxicity of the protein αSynuclein (αSyn), which is the major constituent of LP. We conclude that the Braak’s hypothesis is supported by in vitro, in vivo and clinical evidence. However, we also conclude that the staging system of Braak only describes a specific subset of patients with young onset and long duration of the disease.
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“GI symptoms may predate motor features by years, consistent with the concept that α-synuclein pathology can involve the ENS and vagal/brainstem autonomic nuclei early in disease (Rietdijk et al., 2017; Travagli et al., 2020).”
From Autonomic nervous system and gastrointestinal manifestations with an emphasis on gastric dysfunction (2026) · cites this paper as Rietdijk et al., 2017
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“In later aspects of the disease, where emotional and cognitive disturbances are more prevalent, these Lewy bodies can be detected in higher regions of the brain ( 6 ).”
Preidis, G. A., Berčík, P., Marette, A., O’Mahony, L., Sperandio, V., & Quigley, E. M. M. (2026) · Gut Microbes · doi:10.1080/19490976.2026.2728828
“119–121 While this hypothesis has not gained universal acceptance, it does provide a framework to explain how a microbe could influence brain function, a concept that has been applied to other areas.”
Porwal, M., Malviya, R., Chandra, P., Sridhar, S. B., Shareef, J., Wadhwa, T., Tripathy, D. B., & Arockiam, D. (2026) · Journal of Neuroimmunology · doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2026.579099
Parkinson's disease pathogenesis: From molecular insights to novel therapies
Ramli, M. D. C., Abidin, Z. Z., Okunsai, B., Umbar, G. S. A., & Mauta, T. E. (2026) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-27702-3.00027-3
Zebrafish models provide insight into the biological classification of Parkinson's disease
Mohamed, W., & Outeiro, T. F. (2026) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-27702-3.00032-7
Koterba, M., Skiba, A., Kler, A., Błaszczyk, K., Woźny, M., Stefaniak, O., & Nowicka, J. (2026) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines14102256
“…DSV-induced impairment of the intestinal barrier, or “leaky gut,” allows α -syn aggregates and bacterial products to enter the systemic circulation or the vagal pathway, where they may eventually seed further aggregation in the brain and trigger a vicious circle of neuroinflammation [5,50].”
InfluentialThe role of gut microbiota in Parkinson's disease pharmacotherapy
Wadan, A. S., Hammadeh, B. M., Ahmed, M. A., Maged, A. A., & Ellakwa, D. E. (2026) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-54032-5.00002-4
Lazzarotto, I., de Sousa, I. F., Mazon, J., & Lazzarotto, G. (2026) · RECIMA21 - Revista Científica Multidisciplinar · doi:10.47820/recima21.v7i10.9317
Metadata
- Authors
- Rietdijk, C. D., Perez-Pardo, P., Garssen, J., van Wezel, R. J. A., & Kraneveld, A. D.
- Affiliations
- Utrecht University (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Kraneveld, Aletta D.
- Venue
- Frontiers in Neurology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2017-02-13
- Volume
- 8
- Pages
- 37-37
- ISSN
- 1664-2295 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5304413
- OpenAlex
- W2588841770
- Cited by
- 395
- References
- 153
- Citations by year
- 2026: 41 · 2025: 56 · 2024: 65 · 2023: 43 · 2022: 50 · 2021: 50 · 2020: 30 · 2019: 32 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 10
- FWCI
- 3.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Frontiers in Neurology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of Twente Research Information (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Clinical Neurology › Parkinson's Disease Mechanisms and Treatments
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Nuclear Receptors and Signaling
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Keywords
- Parkinson's disease, Braak hypothesis, Lewy body pathology, sporadic Parkinson's disease, gut-brain axis, alpha-synuclein toxicity, Lewy bodies, neurodegeneration, early-onset Parkinson's disease
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