The emergence of hierarchical structure in human language
Open accessAbstract
We propose a novel account for the emergence of human language syntax. Like many evolutionary innovations, language arose from the adventitious combination of two pre-existing, simpler systems that had been evolved for other functional tasks. The first system, Type E(xpression), is found in birdsong, where the same song marks territory, mating availability, and similar "expressive" functions. The second system, Type L(exical), has been suggestively found in non-human primate calls and in honeybee waggle dances, where it demarcates predicates with one or more "arguments," such as combinations of calls in monkeys or compass headings set to sun position in honeybees. We show that human language syntax is composed of two layers that parallel these two independently evolved systems: an "E" layer resembling the Type E system of birdsong and an "L" layer providing words. The existence of the "E" and "L" layers can be confirmed using standard linguistic methodology. Each layer, E and L, when considered separately, is characterizable as a finite state system, as observed in several non-human species. When the two systems are put together they interact, yielding the unbounded, non-finite state, hierarchical structure that serves as the hallmark of full-fledged human language syntax. In this way, we account for the appearance of a novel function, language, within a conventional Darwinian framework, along with its apparently unique emergence in a single species.
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Human language syntax has a hierarchical structure, described as composition of smaller forms like words and phrases into larger ones.
“Human language syntax has a hierarchical structure, which Berwick et al described as “composition of smaller forms like words and phrases into larger ones” (Berwick et al., 2012; Miyagawa et al., 2013).”
From Toward an integration of deep learning and neuroscience (2016) · cites this paper as Miyagawa et al., 2013
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Multi-Modal Fusion and Query Refinement Network for Video Moment Retrieval and Highlight Detection
Xu, Y., Sun, Y., Zhai, B., Xie, Z., Jia, Y., & Du, S. (2024) · IEEE International Conference on Multimedia and Expo (ICME) · doi:10.1109/icme57554.2024.10687844 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“From a biological viewpoint, human language processing follows a layered hierarchy [9, 10].”
Residuals of Intelligent Design in Contemporary Theories about Language Nature and Origins
Pennisi, A., & Falzone, A. (2014) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Brody, M. (2019) · Acta Linguistica Academica · doi:10.1556/2062.2019.66.3.2 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Indeed, a year later (Miyagawa et al. 2013), Berwick himself considers birdsong grammar analogous to an aspect of narrow syntax, that is, of FLN.”
BackgroundA quantitative probe into the hierarchical structure of written Chinese
Chen, H., & Liu, H. (2019) · doi:10.18653/v1/w19-7904 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Measuring context dependency in birdsong using artificial neural networks
Morita, T., Koda, H., & Tachibana, R. O. (2021) · Institutional Repositories DataBase (IRDB) · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009707 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Can the integration hypothesis account for language evolution?
Tallerman, M. (2016) · Journal of Neurolinguistics · doi:10.1016/j.jneuroling.2016.06.006 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“In a number of recent papers, Shigeru Miyagawa and colleagues have proposed what is termed the Integration Hypothesis for language evolution (Miyagawa, 2016; Miyagawa et al. 2014, 2013; N obrega&Miyagawa, 2015).”
BackgroundCommunication, semiotics, and the language Rubicon
Kozintsev, A. G. (2018) · Russian Journal of Communication · doi:10.1080/19409419.2017.1421095 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
How Language Models Reshape Sponsored Search: Evidence from Google’s BERT RolloutPreprint
Larsen, P., & Proserpio, D. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4614402 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Osorio, S., & Assaneo, M. F. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0320519 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The Origin of Dance: Evolutionary Significance on Ritualized Movements of Animals
Oota, S. (2015) · Springer tracts in advanced robotics · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-25739-6_15 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Communicating Between Species and Between Disciplines—Lessons from the Old English Seafarer
Ellard, D. B. (2018) · Exemplaria · doi:10.1080/10412573.2018.1503865 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
On the representation of hierarchical structure: Revisiting Darwin’s musical protolanguage
Miyagawa, S., Arévalo, A. L., & Nóbrega, V. A. (2022) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2022.1018708 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Cannon, C. (2023) · Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America · doi:10.3765/plsa.v8i1.5571 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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Quantum Physics, Digital Computers, and Life from a Holistic Perspective
Ellis, G. (2024) · Foundations of Physics · doi:10.1007/s10701-024-00792-4 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“This extremely flexible structure has evolved for good functional [66] and evolutionary [2, 67, 68] reasons.”
On how “early syntax” came about
Hillert, D. G. (2023) · Frontiers in Language Sciences · doi:10.3389/flang.2023.1251498 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Using more native-like language acquisition processes in the foreign language classroom
Green, K. (2018) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2018.1429134 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Origin and Evolution of Language: a Close Look at Human Nature
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Components of the Language-Ready Brain
Boeckx, C. A., & Benítez‐Burraco, A. (2016) · Frontiers research topics · doi:10.3389/978-2-88919-893-1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Intrinsic negative feedback as a limiting factor for the evolution of higher forms of intelligence
Arold, S. T. (2020) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.22039.1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Intrinsic negative feedback as a limiting factor for the evolution of higher forms of intelligence
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The relativity of ontogenetic time on primate evolution and the emergence of language
Sampaio, T. O. D. M., França, A. I., & de Aquino, N. M. M. (2023) · Cadernos de Estudos Lingüísticos · doi:10.20396/cel.v65i00.8673509 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Rapid expansion of synaptic complexity as a key contributor to cognitive growth in early humansPreprint
Lepski, G. A., Arévalo, A. L., de Camargo, P. S., Nunes, K., Lemes, R. B., Ferraz, T., Strauss, A. M., & Miyagawa, S. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.04.09.648028 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Caminhando com os fundamentos da gramática gerativa
França, A. I., & Lage, A. C. (2015) · Confluência · doi:10.18364/rc.v1i47.33
Nóbrega, V. A., & Miyagawa, S. (2026) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003763789-17
Koda, H. (2014) · Primate Research · doi:10.2354/psj.30.012
The centrality of speech for human thought
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Domain-general perspectives on the neurocognitive specialization of language
Castillo, G. (2017) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas)
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Intrinsic negative feedback as a limiting factor for the evolution of higher forms of intelligence
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Ways of Listening: Birdsong, Poetry, and Sustainability in Education
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Why did humans surpass all other primates? Are our brains so different? Part 1
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“60 In addition, there is hemispheric lateralization.”
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Chen, H.-L., Yang, G., Qu, X., Li, D., Zhao, C., Junjie, W. U., Zeng, K., He, Y., Hartwigsen, G., Chen, R., et al. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-8717654/v1
Bird vocalizations and linguistics
Okanoya, K. (2026) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-29068-8.00226-9
Boundary-constrained chunking shapes local–global positional representations in working memory
Yang, X., Wang, Y., & Zhan, L. (2026) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2026.2712599
“When reading sequentially presented words, prior linguistic knowledge helps comprehenders define chunk boundaries (Ding et al., 2016; Miyagawa et al., 2013) and the need to rapidly derive compositional meaning may encourage tighter binding of linguistic units within a chunk (e.g., within a word or…”
- Authors
- Miyagawa, S., Berwick, R. C., & Okanoya, K.
- Affiliations
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology (US)
- The University of Tokyo (JP)
- Corresponding author
- Miyagawa, Shigeru
- Venue
- Frontiers in Psychology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2013
- Volume
- 4
- Pages
- 71-71
- ISSN
- 1664-1078 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3577014
- OpenAlex
- W2102245440
- Cited by
- 81
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 2
- FWCI
- 121.61
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Frontiers in Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Institutional Repositories DataBase (IRDB) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (23240033, 23300085)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Cultural Studies › Language and cultural evolution
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › Syntax, Semantics, Linguistic Variation
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Developmental Biology › Animal Vocal Communication and Behavior
- Keywords
- language emergence, hierarchy, bird song, honeybee waggle dance, lexical layers, finite-state systems, evolutionary innovation
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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