Technology Acceptance, Technological Self-Efficacy, and Attitude Toward Technology-Based Self-Directed Learning: Learning Motivation as a Mediator

“Hu and Bentler (1999) suggested that TLI and CFI should be greater than or equal to 0.90 to indicate good suitability, and RMSEA and SRMR should be less than 0.06 and 0.08, respectively.”

“The TAM was first proposed by Davis (1989) on the basis of the theory of reasoned action (TRA) advanced by Fishbein and Ajzen (1975), which is used to explain the associations between the students’ technology acceptance of computer system, behavioral intention, and definite behavior of technology…”

“Venkatesh et al. (2003) expanded the TAM with empirical research by adding such factors as social influence, cognitive structure, and experience and the factor of subjective norm that had not been adopted in the original TAM.”

“In this study, structural equation modeling was used, and a two-stage approach to data analysis was adopted (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988).”

“According to Deci and Ryan (2000), intrinsic motivation helps to construct students’ experience of pleasure, enjoyment, and satisfaction, which in turn would further motivate their learning engagement (Dysvik and Kuvaas, 2013).”

“According to Teo et al. (2015, p.78), “attitude toward technology use has been examined in various models that attempt to explain individuals’ intention for technology use, including Technology Acceptance Model (TAM; Davis et al., 1989), TAM2 (Venkatesh and Davis, 2000), and Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Tec…”

“Research confirmed that college students’ technology acceptance is positively associated with both learning self-eÿcacy and the development of self-directed learning competencies (Pan, 2020).”

“More recently, Pan [61] indicated that students ’ self-efficacy affected their attitude toward technology-based learning.”

“It is in line with a study conducted by Pan (2020) who found the influence of SE on PEoU, and self-efficacy showed higher attitude toward technology use in English learning.”

“All of this limits their technological self-efficacy (Pan, 2020).”

“Learners who have strong convictions can achieve desirable results because their positive attitudes drive their behaviour (Getie, 2020; Pan, 2020).”

“Pan (2020) pointed out that learning motivation mediates between technology acceptance, technology self-efficacy, and attitudes toward technology-autonomous learning.”

“Students with higher DL are better prepared to explore emerging technologies independently, thereby enhancing AUM’s positive influence on engagement (Pan, 2020).”

“For instance, Zhang et al. (2017), Pan (2020), and Khoa (2023) demonstrated that self-efficacy is a critical determinant of individuals’ perceived ability to engage with emerging technologies. this connection is particularly relevant in Malang Raya, where many drivers may have limited exposure to…”

“This aligns with studies showing that teachers with high self-efficacy report more frequent technology usage (Al-Adwan et al., 2023; Anderson et al., 2011; Fathema et al., 2015; John, 2013; Pan, 2020).”

“Most of the conclusions drawn from many empirical studies indicate that students’ perceptions of the technological environment are an important factor influencing their academically relevant beliefs (Pan, 2020).”

“Pan (2020) explored that more foreign technology is compatible with the remaining technology; a more positive attitude can be derived.”

“…application acceptance model to empirically study the staff’s task-related Internet behaviors by comprehensively applying TAM (Chen et al., 2021; Pan, 2020; Sprenger & Schwaninger, 1 3 Education and Information Technologies (2024) 29:5283–5307 2021; Stephan et al., 2019) and Choo’s (1996)…”

“This result contrasts with prior research, such as Pan (2020), which suggests that the intention to use ICT directly boosts learning motivation.”

“…use are more likely to focus on tasks and enjoy tackling those tasks, thereby becoming motivated and more engaged in blended learning tasks (Albiladi and Alshareef, 2019), and subsequently developing a positive attitude toward the FL learning (Pan, 2020; Rafiee and Abbasian-Naghneh, 2021).”

“Sun and Gao (2020), Pan (2020), and Sun et al. (2016) noted that personality variables support intrinsic and extrinsic motives, which in turn influence internet entrepreneurial intention.”

“Therefore, the willingness to use AI chatbots will also have an impact on the benefits that users will get [13].”

“…a theoretical foundation for the motivation process about individual self-determination behavior, stipulating that the environment enhances the internal motivation and promotes the internalization of the external motivation by satisfying the basic psychological needs of the individual” (p. 4) 9 .”

“In addition, technological self-efficacy was mentioned twice, underscoring the role of technology in learning motivation and the increasing focus on this area within educational technology research (Pan, 2020; Aboobaker et al., 2023).”

“Para recoger estas evidencias, próximas investigaciones pueden analizar correlaciones entre la aceptación de tecnologías e-learning y aprendizaje autodirigido (An, Xi, et al., 2022), autoeficacia tecnológica (Pan, 2020) o motivación al aprendizaje (An, Yu, et al., 2022).”

“Pan (2020) addressed the attitude towards self-directed learning.”

“Pan (2020) also regarded English learning motivation as a mediator to connect self-efficacy and English learning achievement.”

“These attitudes are shaped by two key factors: perceived usefulness—the belief that technology enhances performance or facilitates tasks (Pan, 2020)—and ease of use.”

“In sports education, educators with strong technological self-efficacy are more likely to integrate innovative tools – such as video analysis software, wearable tech for real-time data, and VR simulations – into their teaching (Pan, 2020).”

“In future studies, other components of professional competence, such as self-efficacy (58), teacher beliefs (59), and digital competences (60), might be considered to map learning outcomes.”

“Among the psychological constructs central to learning, self-efficacy and learning interest are consistently found to influence students’ academic behaviors and outcomes (Hanham et al., 2021; Lee et al., 2014; Pan, 2020).”

“…learning equips individuals with the necessary skills, attitudes, and mindset to thrive in a rapidly changing world, fostering lifelong learning, independence, adaptability, critical thinking, and self-con fi dence (Pan, 2020; Rashid & Asghar, 2016; Song & Bonk, 2016; Sze-Yeng & Hussain, 2010).”

“For example, previous research indicates that individuals who perceive a certain technology as e ffi cient, familiar, or useful are more likely to embrace it (Li 2023; Pan 2020).”

“Independent learning activities do not only focus on cognitive aspects but also psychomotor aspects, where students with laboratory limitations can obtain additional material and practice through visualization available in CBT (Khiat, 2017; Pan, 2020).”

“In this study, different from PU and PEU, which focus on the subjective perception of the devices, PSE emphasizes individual’s assessment of their competence to utilize digital displays [61].”

“Compatibility Beliefs in Technology has shown validity and reliability among users of a compatibility relationship management system [13].”

“Similarly, Pan (2020) emphasized that learners' perceived TSE and acceptance of technology radically influenced their learning outcomes.”

“Paper-and pencil surveys included the ‘Technology Self-Efficacy Questionnaire’ (Pan, 2020), ‘Computer Proficiency Questionnaire-12’ (CPQ-12; Boot et al., 2015), and the ‘Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System’ (PROMIS®)-Applied Cognition-SF8a.”

“125 This implies that the effective adoption of HIS could be significantly improved by training initiatives to enhance health workers confidence in using system and by clearly communicating the benefits to increase motivation.”

“Studies suggest that self-ef fi cacy mediates the relationship between LLM adoption and learning outcomes, with high self-ef fi cacy learners more likely to use LLMs strategically for problem-solving and knowledge construction (Shahzad et al., 2025; Pan, 2020; J. Liu, Hwang, et al., 2024).”

“…2020), system quality (Won et al., 2023), and perceived usefulness (Wang et al., 2022); self-eÿcacy is associated with multiple factors including role models (Kleppang et al., 2023), perceived environment (Wu et al., 2025), peer support (Lin et al., 2024), and technological factors (Pan, 2020).”

“In existing research, learning motivation is widely regarded as a key factor influencing both students’ behavior and their self-efficacy (Pan, 2020).”

“The role of self-efficacy has been studied, for example, in relation to work performance (Judge et al. 2007; Stajkovic and Luthans 1998), habit building (Stojanovic, Fries, and Grund 2021), general health (Dadipoor et al. 2021), and interactions with technologies (Pan 2020).”

“At the same time, Pan (2020) found that technology-acceptance and self-efficacy predicted attitudes toward technology-based self-directed learning.”

“Pan (2020) demonstrated that learning motivation mediated technology acceptance, technological self-efficacy, and students ’ attitudes toward technology-based self-directed learning.”

“Pan (2020) demonstrated that learning motivation significantly mediates the relationship between technology acceptance, technological self-efficacy, and students ’ attitudes toward technology-based self-directed learning, which subsequently influences learning achievement.”

“…the effectiveness of AI tools for L2 writing development – such as automated feedback systems or generative writing assistants – remains critically contingent on learners’ subjective attitudes and willingness to engage (Pan 2020; Vargas-Murillo, De La Asuncion Pari-Bedoya, and Guevara-Soto 2023).”

“In addition, the technological self-efficacy has a positive influence to people in the academe on technology acceptance and utilization of individual's control beliefs in technology use Pan (2020).”

“There is a correlation between how one feels about one's abilities and how one feels about using technology-based self-directed learning (Pan, 2020).”

“Learning motivation serves as a mediating mechanism that explains the relationship between students' perceptions of the creativity of a technological environment and their attitudes toward a self-directed independent learning curriculum (Pan, 2020).”

“Recognizing the impact of social factors on technology adoption (Pan, 2020), parents ’ perspectives on interventions for autistic children are emphasized.”

“For example, concerns over privacy and transparency on AI-driven news platforms have been shown to reduce user interaction and acceptance (Pan, 2020).”

“However, due to its parsimony, researchers need to incorporate variables, such as internal psychological factors and external contextual variables, to expand its explanatory power (Dehghani and Mashhadi 2024; Pan 2020; Uluda ğ et al. 2025).”

“We examined two domain-specific forms of self-efficacy: technology self-efficacy, 8–10 defined as confidence in learning and using digital health tools (e.g., navigating apps, entering data, troubleshooting), and health self-efficacy, 11,12 defined as confidence in managing one’s health tasks…”

“Items adapted from Pan (2020) and Bandura (1997) emphasized efficacy in dynamic teaching contexts ( α = 0.940).”

“Further, Vankatesh and Davis (1996; as cited in Pan, 2020) stated that technology self-efficacy could be considered as a proxy of an individual’s control beliefs in the use of technology.”

“This greatly motivates students to use a given technology, particularly for self-directed learning (Pan, 2020).”

“A positive attitude toward technology is positively related to the chances that a teacher will adopt new methods, such as gamification, while a negative attitude results in resistance to change and a lack of interest in testing new forms of approach, pointed out by Pan (2020).”

“These results underscore the compelling role of individual perceived sense of capabilities in line with the use of technology [52, 53].”

“Changes in self-efficacy and perceptions towards technology complement each other and, understanding the relationship between self-efficacy and perceptions towards technology has important implications for educators, trainers, and policymakers (Pan, 2020).”

“…acceptance models has underscored the importance of understanding how personal attitudes contribute to behavioral intention on technology use [36-41], particularly how perceived ease of use and utility influences individuals’ willingness to adopt and continue to use a given technology [39].”