Temporal Assessment of Self-Regulated Learning by Mining Students’ Think-Aloud Protocols
Open accessAbstract
It has been widely theorized and empirically proven that self-regulated learning (SRL) is related to more desired learning outcomes, e.g., higher performance in transfer tests. Research has shifted to understanding the role of SRL during learning, such as the strategies and learning activities, learners employ and engage in the different SRL phases, which contribute to learning achievement. From a methodological perspective, measuring SRL using think-aloud data has been shown to be more insightful than self-report surveys as it helps better in determining the link between SRL activities and learning achievements. Educational process mining on the basis of think-aloud data enables a deeper understanding and more fine-grained analyses of SRL processes. Although students’ SRL is highly contextualized, there are consistent findings of the link between SRL activities and learning outcomes pointing to some consistency of the processes that support learning. However, past studies have utilized differing approaches which make generalization of findings between studies investigating the unfolding of SRL processes during learning a challenge. In the present study with 29 university students, we measured SRL via concurrent think-aloud protocols in a pre-post design using a similar approach from a previous study in an online learning environment during a 45-min learning session, where students learned about three topics and wrote an essay. Results revealed significant learning gain and replication of links between SRL activities and transfer performance, similar to past research. Additionally, temporal structures of successful and less successful students indicated meaningful differences associated with both theoretical assumptions and past research findings. In conclusion, extending prior research by exploring SRL patterns in an online learning setting provides insights to the replicability of previous findings from online learning settings and new findings show that it is important not only to focus on the repertoire of SRL strategies but also on how and when they are used.
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Learners often struggle with effective learning regulation, particularly in digital settings, leading to missing learning outcome effects.
“learners have been found to often struggle with effective learning regulation, particularly in digital settings, leading to missing learning outcome effects (e.g., Azevedo & Feyzi-Behnagh, 2011;Lim et al., 2021).”
From How do students regulate their learning with a genAI chatbot? (2026) · cites this paper as Lim et al., 2021
The Introduction states that students have difficulty regulating their learning in digital or online settings and that self-regulated learning is associated with better learning outcomes. It does not establish that those difficulties cause “missing learning outcome effects”; the Results instead report a significant learning gain in the study’s online setting. (LLM, conf=0.85)
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Self-citationHuang, L., Zhan, Y., & Ba, S. (2025) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105310 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Adaptive metacognitive prompting in young learners and the role of prior performance
Pape, R., & Thomas, J. (2025) · International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1016/j.ijcci.2025.100740 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Zhao, L., Raković, M., Cloude, E. B., Li, X., Gašević, D., & Bardach, L. (2025) · International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge (LAK) · doi:10.1145/3706468.3706534 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationA design-based approach to analysing student engagement with a GenAI-Enabled brainstorming app
Chia, J., & Frattarola, A. (2025) · Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100468 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Aprendizaje autorregulado para aprender a aprender en la formación universitaria
Márquez, C. R., Silva-Aguilar, A., Miranda-Vargas, V., & Sánchez, R. M. S. (2023) · HUMAN REVIEW International Humanities Review / Revista Internacional de Humanidades · doi:10.37467/revhuman.v21.5058 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Analytics of Temporal Patterns of Self-regulated Learners: A Time Series Approach
Alghamdi, S. R., Raković, M., Yang, K., Fan, Y., Gašević, D., & Chen, G. (2025) · International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge (LAK) · doi:10.1145/3706468.3706504 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationInvestigating Debugging Processes: A Scoping Review
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Alkandari, K., & Alabdulhadi, M. M. J. (2023) · International Journal of Learning Teaching and Educational Research · doi:10.26803/ijlter.22.5.4 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
What Does Twitter Say About Self-Regulated Learning? Mapping Tweets From 2011 to 2021
Khalil, M., & Belokrys, G. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.820813 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Combining dispositional and behavioural facets of SRL, and the role of students’ growth orientation
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Panadero, E., Pinedo, L., Fernández-Ortube, A., Zamorano, D., Barrenetxea-Mínguez, L., & Sánchez‐Iglesias, I. (2026) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-026-09468-y · Cited by 2 · see citing works
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How do students regulate their learning with a genAI chatbot?
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Self-citationAprendizaje autorregulado para aprender a aprender en la formación universitaria
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Let Me Explain: Linking Situational Interest to Student Response in Interviews
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Goal Systems and Regulatory Processes in Esports: A Pilot Study on League of Legends Players
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A Stealth Assessment System for Inferring Learning Strategies from Puzzle Gameplay
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- Authors
- Lim, L., Bannert, M., van der Graaf, J., Molenaar, I., Fan, Y., Kilgour, J., Moore, J., & Gašević, D.
- Affiliations
- Technical University of Munich (DE)
- Radboud University Nijmegen (NL)
- University of Edinburgh (GB)
- Monash University (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Lim, Lyn
- Venue
- Frontiers in Psychology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2021-11-04
- Volume
- 12
- Pages
- 749749-749749
- ISSN
- 1664-1078 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC8601160
- OpenAlex
- W3213710532
- Cited by
- 44
- References
- 84
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 4
- FWCI
- 7.69
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Frontiers in Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Monash University Research Portal (Monash University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- mediaTUM – the media and publications repository of the Technical University Munich (Technical University Munich) (submittedVersion)
- mediaTUM (Technical University of Munich) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Edinburgh Research Explorer (University of Edinburgh) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- NWO (NWO464.18.104)
- ESRC (ES/S015701/1)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Science Applications › Online Learning and Analytics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- student self-regulation, think-aloud, process mining, educational process mining, online learning, transfer performance, learning gains, replication of findings, university students
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