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Micronutrient supplement intakes among collegiate and masters athletes: A cross-sectional study
Open accessAbstract
Objective: In our cross-sectional study, we evaluated micronutrient supplementation intake among Collegiate and Masters Athletes. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study to assess micronutrient supplementation consumption in Collegiate and Masters Athletes, comparing sex and sport classification within each respective group. Micronutrient supplement consumption data were measured using a Food Frequency Questionnaire. A two-way analysis of variance was used to explore the differences among Collegiate and Masters Athletes' supplement intakes of the following vitamins and minerals: vitamins A, B 6, B 12, C, E, D, and calcium, folate, iron, magnesium niacin, riboflavin, selenium, thiamine, and zinc. When significant differences were found, a Bonferroni post hoc test was performed to identify specific group differences. The significance level was set a priori at p < 0.05. Results: A total of 198 athletes (105 females and 93 males) were included in the study. Participants were 36.16 ± 12.33 years of age. Collegiate male athletes had significantly greater vitamin A [1,090.51 ± 154.72 vs. 473.93 ± 233.18 mg retinol activity equivalents (RAE)/day] (p < 0.036), folate [337.14 ± 44.79 vs. 148.67 ± 67.50 mcg dietary folate equivalents (DFE)/day] (p < 0.027), and magnesium (65.35 ± 8.28 vs. 31.28 ± 12.48 mg/day) (p < 0.031) intakes compared to Collegiate female athletes. Collegiate CrossFit Athletes (940.71 ± 157.54 mg/day) had a significantly greater vitamin C intake compared to Collegiate General Athletes (156.34 ± 67.79 mg/day) (p < 0.005), Collegiate Triathletes (88.57 ± 148.53 mg/day) (p < 0.027), Collegiate Resistance Training Athletes (74.28 ± 143.81 mg/day) (p < 0.020), and Collegiate Powerlifters (175.71 ± 128.63 mg/day) (p < 0.044). Masters females had significantly greater calcium intakes compared to Masters males (494.09 ± 65.73 vs.187.89 ± 77.23 mg/day, respectively) (p < 0.002). Collegiate Runners (41.35 ± 6.53 mg/day) had a significantly greater iron intake compared to Collegiate Powerlifters (4.50 ± 6.53 mg/day) (p < 0.024). Masters Swimmers (61.43 ± 12.10 mg/day) had significantly greater iron intakes compared to Masters General Athletes (13.97 ± 3.56 mg/day) (p < 0.014), Masters Runners (17.74 ± 2.32 mg/day) (p < 0.03), Masters Triathletes (11.95 ± 3.73 mg/day) (p < 0.008), Masters CrossFit Athletes (15.93 ± 5.36 mg/day) (p < 0.043), Masters Rowers (9.10 ± 3.36 mg/day) (p < 0.003), and Masters Cyclists (1.71 ± 9.88 mg/day) (p < 0.011). Masters Powerlifters (47.14 ± 9.65 mg/day) had significantly greater zinc intakes compared to Masters General Athletes (9.57 ± 2.84 mg/day) (p < 0.015), Masters Runners (10.67 ± 1.85 mg/day) (p < 0.017), Masters Triathletes (10.24 ± 2.98 mg/day) (p < 0.020), Masters Rowers (9.33 ± 2.68 mg/day) (p < 0.013), and Masters Cyclists (1.43 ± 7.88 mg/day) (p < 0.019). There were no other significant differences among the other micronutrient supplement intakes between the sexes or among the sport classification. Conclusion: We reported significant differences among female and male Collegiate and Masters Athletes. Additionally, we reported significant differences among Collegiate and Masters Athletes sport classifications. Further research should examine both dietary and micronutrient supplement intake among Collegiate and Masters Athletes to examine the extent that athletes exceed the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA), and the potential effects on health and performance.
Overview
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TL;DR
This cross-sectional study assessed micronutrient supplement intake via a Food Frequency Questionnaire in 198 collegiate and masters athletes who used at least one micronutrient supplement. It found several sex- and sport-classification differences, including higher vitamin A, folate, and magnesium supplement intakes in collegiate males than females, higher calcium in masters females than males, and sport-specific differences in vitamin C, iron, and zinc.
Key findings
- Collegiate male athletes had significantly greater supplement intakes than collegiate female athletes for vitamin A (1,090.51 ± 154.72 vs. 473.93 ± 233.18 mcg RAE/day, p < 0.036), folate (337.14 ± 44.79 vs. 148.67 ± 67.50 mcg DFE/day, p < 0.027), and magnesium (65.35 ± 8.28 vs. 31.28 ± 12.48 mg/day, p < 0.031).
- Collegiate CrossFit athletes had significantly greater vitamin C intake (940.71 ± 157.54 mg/day) than collegiate General athletes (156.34 ± 67.79 mg/day, p < 0.005), Triathletes (88.57 ± 148.53 mg/day, p < 0.027), Resistance Training athletes (74.28 ± 143.81 mg/day, p < 0.020), and Powerlifters (175.71 ± 128.63 mg/day, p < 0.044). Collegiate Runners had greater iron intake (41.35 ± 6.53 mg/day) than Collegiate Powerlifters (4.50 ± 6.53 mg/day, p < 0.024).
- Masters females had significantly greater calcium intake than masters males (494.09 ± 65.73 vs. 187.89 ± 77.23 mg/day, p < 0.002). Masters Swimmers had significantly greater iron intake (61.43 ± 12.10 mg/day) than Masters General Athletes, Runners, Triathletes, CrossFit athletes, Rowers, and Cyclists (p values ranging from <0.003 to <0.043). Masters Powerlifters had significantly greater zinc intake (47.14 ± 9.65 mg/day) than Masters General Athletes, Runners, Triathletes, Rowers, and Cyclists (p values ranging from <0.013 to <0.020).
- There were no other significant differences among the other micronutrient supplement intakes between sexes or among sport classifications.
Methods
- Cross-sectional study of collegiate and masters athletes. Eligibility included non-smokers who exercised at least 2 days/week; exclusions included sedentary individuals, chronic disease or medications without physician permission, inability to consent, age <18, and pregnancy. Masters athletes were defined as 26 years or older. A total of 365 adults were surveyed, and 198 athletes (105 females, 93 males) who used at least one micronutrient supplement were included in final analyses; participants were 36.16 ± 12.33 years of age.
- Body weight and height were measured twice; waist circumference was measured three times. Participants completed the self-administered Block 2005 Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ), which asked only about single vitamin, mineral, and multivitamin/multimineral supplements and did not ask about protein powders, sport gels/powders, pre-workout supplements, or fruit/vegetable powders. The study focused on vitamins A, B6, B12, C, E, D, calcium, folate, iron, magnesium, niacin, riboflavin, selenium, thiamine, and zinc.
- Two-way ANOVA compared supplement intakes by sex and sport classification within collegiate and masters groups, with Bonferroni post hoc tests when significant differences were found. Significance was set a priori at p < 0.05. Due to uneven group sizes, intakes were reported as estimated marginal means ± standard error; normality was assessed with histograms, normal probability plots, and the Kruskal–Wallis test.
Limitations
- The paper states that this was a cross-sectional study analyzing data at a single point in time; the Block 2005 FFQ supplement questions were limited to single vitamin, mineral, and multivitamin/multimineral use and did not include protein powders, sport gels/powders, pre-workout supplements, or fruit and vegetable powders; athletes were not surveyed about why they used supplements or where they obtained supplement information; and small sample sizes in sport-classification groups may have affected differences within and between groups.
- Evident from the text: the final analysis included only athletes who used at least one micronutrient supplement, so supplement non-users and overall prevalence were not evaluated; several sport subgroups were very small (e.g., n = 1–5 in multiple collegiate and masters sport classifications), and the study assessed supplement intake rather than total dietary plus supplemental micronutrient intake.
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In the paper
“Collegiate male athletes had significantly greater vitamin A [1,090.51 ± 154.72 vs. 473.93 ± 233.18 mg retinol activity equivalents (RAE)/day] (p < 0.036), folate [337.14 ± 44.79 vs. 148.67 ± 67.50 mcg dietary folate equivalents (DFE)/day] (p < 0.027), and magnesium (65.35 ± 8.28 vs. 31.28 ± 12.48 mg/day) (p < 0.031) intakes compared to Collegiate female athletes, respectively.”
§ Micronutrient supplement intakes among collegiate and masters athletes: A cross-sectional study > Results > Micronutrient supplement use
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Masters Powerlifters (47.14 ± 9.65 mg/day) had significantly greater zinc intakes compared to Masters General Athletes (9.57 ± 2.84 mg/day) (p < 0.015), Masters Runners (10.67 ± 1.85 mg/day) (p < 0.017), Masters Triathletes (10.24 ± 2.98 mg/day) (p < 0.020), Masters Rowers (9.33 ± 2.68 mg/day) (p < 0.013), and Masters Cyclists (1.43 ± 7.88 mg/day) (p < 0.019).”
§ Micronutrient supplement intakes among collegiate and masters athletes: A cross-sectional study > Abstract > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Collegiate male athletes had significantly greater vitamin A [1,090.51 ± 154.72 vs. 473.93 ± 233.18 mg retinol activity equivalents (RAE)/day] (p < 0.036), folate [337.14 ± 44.79 vs. 148.67 ± 67.50 mcg dietary folate equivalents (DFE)/day] (p < 0.027), and magnesium (65.35 ± 8.28 vs. 31.28 ± 12.48 mg/day) (p < 0.031) intakes compared to Collegiate female athletes, respectively.”
§ Micronutrient supplement intakes among collegiate and masters athletes: A cross-sectional study > Results > Micronutrient supplement use
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on 3 assumptions not shown here.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We reported that Masters Swimmers, had significantly higher iron intake compared to Masters General Athletes, Masters Runners, Masters Triathletes, Masters CrossFit Athletes, Masters Rowers, and Masters Cyclists.”
§ Micronutrient supplement intakes among collegiate and masters athletes: A cross-sectional study > Discussion > Masters athletes
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Masters Swimmers (61.43 ± 12.10 mg/day) had significantly greater iron intakes compared to Masters General Athletes (13.97 ± 3.56 mg/day) (p < 0.014)”
§ Micronutrient supplement intakes among collegiate and masters athletes: A cross-sectional study > Abstract > Results
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on 3 assumptions not shown here.
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In the paper
§ Micronutrient supplement intakes among collegiate and masters athletes: A cross-sectional study > Discussion > Collegiate athletes
“The reported vitamin A supplement intakes in our study were higher than athletes of the same age in other studies (27, 28) Patlar et al. (27) supplemented 10 males, 22.85 ± 0.26 years of age, with 300 mg/day of vitamin A for four weeks.”
§ Micronutrient supplement intakes among collegiate and masters athletes: A cross-sectional study > Results > Micronutrient supplement use
“Vitamin A (mcg RAE)a | 473.93 ± 233.18 | 1,090.51 ± 154.72* | 859.30 ± 130.37”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Micronutrient supplement intakes among collegiate and masters athletes: A cross-sectional study > Results > Micronutrient supplement use
“Masters female athletes had significantly greater calcium intakes compared to Masters male athletes (494.09 ± 65.73 vs.187.89 ± 77.23 mg/day, respectively)”
§ Micronutrient supplement intakes among collegiate and masters athletes: A cross-sectional study > Results > Micronutrient supplement use
“Calcium (mg)a | 494.09 ± 65.73* | 187.89 ± 73.34 | 340.99 ± 49.24”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Micronutrient supplement intakes among collegiate and masters athletes: A cross-sectional study > Abstract > Results
“Masters Runners (10.67 ± 1.85 mg/day)”
§ Micronutrient supplement intakes among collegiate and masters athletes: A cross-sectional study > Results > Micronutrient supplement use
“Zinc (mg)a | 9.57 ± 2.84 | 10.67 ± 1.82 | 10.24 ± 2.98”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Micronutrient supplement intakes among collegiate and masters athletes: A cross-sectional study > Abstract > Results
“Collegiate CrossFit Athletes (940.71 ± 157.54 mg/day) had a significantly greater vitamin C intake compared to Collegiate General Athletes (156.34 ± 67.79 mg/day) (p < 0.005)”
§ Micronutrient supplement intakes among collegiate and masters athletes: A cross-sectional study > Results > Micronutrient supplement use
“Collegiate CrossFit Athletes (940.71 ± 157.94 mg/day) had a significantly greater vitamin C intake compared to Collegiate General Athletes (158.73 ± 67.96 mg/day) (p = 0.006)”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Micronutrient supplement intakes among collegiate and masters athletes: A cross-sectional study > Abstract > Results
“vitamin A [1,090.51 ± 154.72 vs. 473.93 ± 233.18 mg retinol activity equivalents (RAE)/day]”
§ Micronutrient supplement intakes among collegiate and masters athletes: A cross-sectional study > Results > Micronutrient supplement use
“Collegiate Male Athletes (1,090.51 ± 154.72 mcg RAE/day) had significantly greater vitamin A intakes compared to Collegiate Female Athletes (473.93 ± 233.18 mcg RAE/day)”
Citations
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Metadata
- Authors
- Nichols, Q. Z., Ramadoss, R., Stanzione, J. R., & Volpe, S. L.
- Affiliations
- Virginia Tech (US)
- Corresponding author
- Volpe, Stella L.
- Venue
- Frontiers in Sports and Active Living
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2023-04-06
- Volume
- 5
- Pages
- 854442-854442
- ISSN
- 2624-9367 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC10117840
- OpenAlex
- W4362671706
- Semantic Scholar
- e8ce0ea0f4eb251fa4c6992dcf99e6ed77052782
- Cited by
- 9
- References
- 68
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 1
- FWCI
- 1.95
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Frontiers in Sports and Active Living (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- VTechWorks (Virginia Tech) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutrition and Health Studies
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Doping in Sports
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Keywords
- micronutrient supplementation, collegiate athletes, masters athletes, sex differences, vitamin A, folic acid, magnesium, vitamin C, vitamin D, iron, selenium, zinc, CrossFit athletes, triathletes, powerlifters, sports classification, dietary assessment, food frequency questionnaire, iron deficiency, selenium deficiency
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