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Cited by 3,093Sports Performance and TrainingSport Psychology and PerformancePhysical Activity and Health

Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework

Open access
McKay, Alannah K.A., Stellingwerff, Trent, Smith, Ella S., Martin, David T., Mujika, Iñigo, Goosey-Tolfrey, Vicky L., Sheppard, Jeremy, Burke, Louise M.·2022·International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
DOI 10.1123/ijspp.2021-0451
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Abstract

Throughout the sport-science and sports-medicine literature, the term “elite” subjects might be one of the most overused and ill-defined terms. Currently, there is no common perspective or terminology to characterize the caliber and training status of an individual or cohort. This paper presents a 6-tiered Participant Classification Framework whereby all individuals across a spectrum of exercise backgrounds and athletic abilities can be classified. The Participant Classification Framework uses training volume and performance metrics to classify a participant to one of the following: Tier 0: Sedentary; Tier 1: Recreationally Active; Tier 2: Trained/Developmental; Tier 3: Highly Trained/National Level; Tier 4: Elite/International Level; or Tier 5: World Class. We suggest the Participant Classification Framework can be used to classify participants both prospectively (as part of study participant recruitment) and retrospectively (during systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses). Discussion around how the Participant Classification Framework can be tailored toward different sports, athletes, and/or events has occurred, and sport-specific examples provided. Additional nuances such as depth of sport participation, nationality differences, and gender parity within a sport are all discussed. Finally, chronological age with reference to the junior and masters athlete, as well as the Paralympic athlete, and their inclusion within the Participant Classification Framework has also been considered. It is our intention that this framework be widely implemented to systematically classify participants in research featuring exercise, sport, performance, health, and/or fitness outcomes going forward, providing the much-needed uniformity to classification practices.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

The paper proposes a 6-tier Participant Classification Framework to standardize how exercise and sport-science research participants are classified by training volume, performance metrics, and skill level. It aims to replace subjective labels such as “elite” with a flexible continuum from sedentary individuals to world-class athletes, usable prospectively and retrospectively.

Key findings

  • The framework defines Tier 0: Sedentary; Tier 1: Recreationally Active; Tier 2: Trained/Developmental; Tier 3: Highly Trained/National Level; Tier 4: Elite/International Level; and Tier 5: World Class.
  • Reported population estimates include Tier 0 ≈46% global and ≈52% Australian; Tier 1 ≈35%–42% global and ≈30% Australian; Tier 2 ≈12%–19% global and ≈18% Australian; Tier 3 ≈0.014% global and ≈0.027% Australian; Tier 4 ≈0.0025% global and ≈0.0055% Australian; Tier 5 <0.00006% global and <0.001% Australian.
  • Classification should prioritize objective, quantitative information over subjective terminology; for example, “recreationally active” participants with <150 minutes/week activity should be classified as Tier 0: Sedentary.
  • Sport-specific adaptations are provided: team sports are classified mainly by team/league/position; endurance, middle-distance/power, and speed/strength sports can use performance standards; precision/skill, racquet, and combat/weight-making sports likely rely heavily on world rankings.

Methods

  • Conceptual/position paper: the framework was developed by content/discipline experts with elite sport and academic experience, building on prior classification literature.
  • It uses training volume/physical activity metrics, performance standards, skill level, and global/continent-specific population statistics; detailed population calculations are in supplementary material.
  • The paper provides prospective classification guidance, a flowchart, retrospective classification rules (e.g., median tier, higher tier when participants span two tiers, separate cohorts when intentionally compared, “insufficient information” when data are unclear), and sport-specific examples including basketball, track and field, and snowboard.

Limitations

  • Stated: the first iteration focuses on absolute performance rankings untroubled by age; future versions should consider age categories such as junior and masters competition.
  • Stated: the framework was designed with nondisabled participants at the forefront, and classifying Paralympic athletes is more challenging due to impairment heterogeneity, small or fluctuating field sizes, and changing disability classification protocols; future versions should target these populations.
  • Stated and evident: fitness status at the time of testing is not currently accounted for, sport-specific examples are not intended as rigid criteria, and retrospective use may be limited when studies lack clear participant information, leading to an “insufficient information” classification.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1123/ijspp.2021-0451

Cites

39 of 39 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 40 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Tier 4: Elite/International Level includes ∼0.003% to 0.006% of the population based on estimates of participation rates in international-level competitions.

    “Tier 4: Elite/International Level includes ∼0.003% to 0.006% of the population based on our estimates of participation rates in international-level competitions (see Supplementary Material [available online]).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingcitation

    Tier 2: Trained/Developmental is estimated from national reports to include ∼12% to 19% of the population.

    “Tier 2: Trained/Developmental is estimated from national reports of sport participation rates to include ∼12% to 19% of the population.[25][26][27]”
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  • Premisecitation

    Terms such as 'trained,' 'highly trained,' and 'well-trained' are highly subjective, with variations around training load, training history, and intent of training commitment.

    “Terms such as “trained,” “highly trained,” and “well-trained” also seem to be highly subjective, with variations around the participants training load, training history, and the intent of the training commitment.3,4”
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  • Premisereasoning

    Athletic caliber may influence the response to various interventions.

    “There is evidence that athletic success might be explained by different attributes, or that athletic caliber may influence the response to various interventions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Premisecitation

    An investigation of 91 publications defining participants as 'elite' or 'expert' found the term encompassed athletes from national-level competitions to medalists at major international competition.

    “An investigation examining 91 publications, which defined their participants as either “elite” or “expert” across a range of sports, found that the range of this term encompassed athletes participating in national-level competitions up to athletes winning medals at major international competition.2”
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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 42
  • May combine two claims. 29
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Tier 3: Highly Trained/National Level represents only ∼0.01% to 0.03% of the population.

    “Tier 3: Highly Trained/National Level is the first tier of the present framework in which performance standards are defined and represent only ∼0.01% to 0.03% of the population (see Supplementary Material [available online]).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Findingcitation

    On a global scale, females represented 49% and 41% of total competitors at the Tokyo 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games, respectively, an improvement from the 38% and 26% who competed at Sydney in 2020.

    “On a global scale, females represented 49% and 41% of total competitors at the Tokyo 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games, respectively, a vast improvement toward equality from the 38% and 26% who competed at Sydney in 2020.50”
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    Findingcitation

    At the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games, the T34 women's 100-m track race equated to a 24% difference between first and eighth, whereas the men's T64 event over the same distance had a 6.3% differential.

    “For example, at the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games, the T34 women's 100-m track race equated to a 24% difference between first and eighth, whereas the men's T64 event over the same distance had a 6.3% differential.58”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    National-level track-and-field performance standards for participation are higher in the United States than in Canada, and higher than in countries with smaller populations such as Australia.

    “Here, performance standards for participation at the national level is higher in the United States, compared to Canada, despite being higher than countries with smaller populations such as Australia.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In the women's Para Va'a at the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games, the silver medal was won by a 51-year-old athlete who had transitioned between multiple Paralympic sports.

    “In fact, in the women's Para Va'a (water paddling sport) at the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games, 58 the silver medal was won by a 51-year-old, an athlete that transitioned between multiple Paralympic sports.”
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    Findingcitation

    In wheelchair rugby, a recent study reported a mean participant age of 32 (7) years.

    “This is commonplace in wheelchair rugby too, with a recent study reporting a mean participant age of 32 (7) years.60”
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    Premisecitation

    Targeted periodization of carbohydrate availability enhances training adaptation and endurance performance in subjects described as 'trained athletes.'

    “For example, although targeted periodization of carbohydrate availability has been shown to enhance training adaptation and endurance performance in subjects described as “trained athletes,” 6,7”
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    Premisecitation

    The specificity of research principle requires objective features to define targeted individuals/groups.

    “For example, the basic principle of the specificity of research, which states that the results of a study should be applied only to populations and/or scenarios which are similar to those involved in the research design, 5 requires objective features to define the targeted individuals/groups.”
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    Premisecitation

    The term 'elite' subjects is overused and ill-defined in the exercise science literature.

    “Indeed, the term “elite” subjects might be one of the more overused and ill-defined terms in the exercise science literature. 1”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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    Premisereasoning

    Comparisons across and within studies require robust definitions of the cohort.

    “Comparisons across and within studies, which try to identify the similarities or differences between members of a sporting or active population, require robust definitions of the cohort.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Swann's criteria have not been established within exercise sciences/physiology, and its rigidity does not consider nuances between sports and athletes.

    “However, this has yet to be established within the exercise sciences/physiology domain, and the rigidity of classification does not consider the many nuances that are apparent between different sports and athletes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Swann and colleagues proposed 5 criteria to assess an athlete's ability and used them to differentiate semi-elite from world-class.

    “Swann and colleagues proposed that 5 criteria should be used to assess an athlete's ability: (1) highest performance standard, (2) level of success, (3) years of experience, (4) competitiveness of the sport within the athlete's country, and (5) global competitiveness of the sport, with responses used in a mathematical equation to differentiate a “semi-elite” athlete from a “world-class” athlete.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Population estimates for each tier were based on global and continent-specific statistics.

    “These population estimates have been based on both global and continent-specific statistics to demonstrate how densely populated each of these tiers may be”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Several country estimates suggest 48% to 54% of individuals meet current physical activity guidelines.

    “Several country estimates suggest that between 48% and 54% of individuals do meet current physical activity guidelines, [21][22][23][24]”
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Cycling-specific classification systems have been widely adopted and likely facilitated better comparison and interpretation of scientific results.

    “Within the cycling specific literature, these classification systems have been widely adopted and have likely facilitated better comparison and interpretation of scientific results.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In an elite sporting context, factors such as biological age and genetics are important.

    “whereas in an elite sporting context other factors such as biological age 16 and genetics 17 are undoubtedly important.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
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    Premisereasoning

    Cycling-specific classification systems are highly specific to a single sport and rely on extensive physiological and anthropometric data.

    “However, these classification systems are highly specific to a single sport and rely on extensive physiological and anthropometric data for classification to occur.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The results of existing and future studies cannot be effectively harvested unless there is uniformity around the descriptive characteristics and classification of athletic populations.

    “However, the results of existing and future studies cannot be effectively harvested unless there is uniformity around the descriptive characteristics and classification of athletic populations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Early attempts to define an elite performer suggested 10 years or 10,000 hours are required to achieve expert level.

    “Early attempts to define an elite performer were based on time spent practicing a task, with suggestions that 10 years 14 or 10,000 hours 15 are required to achieve expert level.”
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    Premisecitation

    According to Stefani's taxonomy, team sports can be described as 'object sports' where the primary objective is to manipulate an object while another competitor is in direct confrontation.

    “According to Stefani's taxonomy of sports rating systems, 40 team sports can be described as “object sports” where the primary objective is to manipulate an object while another competitor is in direct confrontation.”
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    Premisereasoning

    Sports such as Sailing, Equestrian, Modern Pentathlon, and Ski Jump require expensive equipment, expert coaching, and/or necessary climate, explaining small global participation rates and fewer elite athletes.

    “Conversely, sports such as Sailing, Equestrian, Modern Pentathlon, and Ski Jump all require expensive equipment, expert coaching, and/or the necessary climate for participation to occur.These barriers explain small global participation rates with a subsequent effect on the number of athletes who compete at the elite level.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The men's long jump world record was set more than 30 years ago (1991: 8.95 m) and only one other athlete has performed within 2% of it since.

    “An example of this is the men's long jump, in which the world record was set more than 30 years ago (1991: 8.95 m) and only one other athlete has performed to within 2% of the world record since that time.43”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Studies including higher caliber athletes (Tier 3-5) typically provide greater depth and breadth of information regarding participant training status.

    “Typically, studies which include higher caliber athletes (Tier 3-5) provide a greater depth and breadth of information regarding participant training status.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisereasoning

    In independent sports, performance can be quantified, allowing comparisons over time and across locations.

    “In these sports, performance can be quantified, allowing comparisons over time and across locations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    BMX racing and Mountain Bike are performed on different courses with different features, so absolute race time is not comparable across racing locations.

    “Furthermore, sports such as BMX racing and Mountain Bike are performed on different courses with different features, and therefore absolute race time is not comparable across racing locations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Rowing boat speed can be highly influenced by environmental factors such as water temperature, salinity, wind, and water current direction.

    “For example, while rowing is a time-based independent sport, boat speed can be highly influenced by environmental factors such as water temperature, salinity, wind, and water current direction.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Due to the dynamic nature of team sports, using performance times or world-record standards for classification is unsuitable.

    “Due to the dynamic nature of these sports, using performance times or world-record standards for classification using the Participant Classification Framework is unsuitable”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisereasoning

    Sports have different rates of global participation.

    “It should be recognized that sports have different rates of global participation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    While the majority of sports in endurance, middle-distance/power, and speed/strength categories allow performance to be quantified in a standardized way, there are a few exceptions.

    “While the majority of sports in these categories easily allow performance to be quantified in a standardized way, there are a few exceptions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    There will be key differences between sports that require sport-specific consideration when applying the framework.

    “While the aim of this framework is to provide a resource that can be adapted to all athletes and research participants, we recognize there will be key differences between sports.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Since the 1960s, East African countries, particularly Kenya and Ethiopia, have dominated the sport of endurance running.

    “Since the 1960s, East African countries, particularly Kenya and Ethiopia have dominated the sport of endurance running.43”
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    Interpretationnone given

    The fitness status at the time of testing is not currently accounted for within the framework.

    “A final consideration, which is not currently accounted for within the framework, is the fitness status at the time of testing, relative to an individual's classification according to the framework.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The marathon at Tokyo 2020 was performed in very hot and humid conditions (~28°C and ~70% humidity), leading to slower race times.

    “For instance, the marathon at the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games was performed in very hot and humid conditions (∼28°C and ∼70% humidity), 47 leading to slower race times”
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    Premisecitation

    The International Judo Federation uses a points-based system, allocating points based on final competition standings, with increased points at major-level competitions.

    “Similarly, the International Judo Federation also uses a points-based system, allocating points based on final competition standings, with increased points awarded at major-level competitions.49”
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Precision/skill-dependent, racquet, and combat/weight-making sports often have a larger dependence on skill rather than physiology or strength as a primary determinant of success.

    “These sports often have a larger dependence on skill rather than physiology or strength as a primary determinant of success, which can be factored into classification.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    An emerging athlete classified as Tier 3 but with limited racing opportunities may outperform athletes at Tier 4.

    “Conversely, an emerging athlete who has been classified as Tier 3: Highly Trained/National Level but has had limited racing opportunities may outperform athletes at Tier 4: Elite/International Level.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    These sports often feature a small competitor pool with variable performance levels at major events.

    “These sports often feature a small competitor pool with variable performance levels at major events.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    When world records are dated or current performances are not close to these standards, world-leading performance is a more appropriate metric from which to derive performance standards.

    “When world records are dated or current performances are not close to these standards, world-leading performance is a far more appropriate metric from which to derive performance standards.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The framework can also be used retrospectively to classify participant cohorts for audits, reviews, and/or meta-analyses.

    “We envisage that this framework can also be used in a retrospective manner to classify participant cohorts for the purpose of audits, reviews, and/or meta-analyses.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Separation between first and eighth finisher in the 100 m women's freestyle swimming final at Tokyo 2020 was 1.27 seconds or 2.4% of winning race time.

    “For instance, separation between first and eighth finisher in the 100 m women's freestyle swimming final at the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games was 1.27 seconds or 2.4% of winning race time.50”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Sport-specific adjustments to tier boundaries ensure that the quality of athletes included within a tier is not diluted by smaller field sizes, nor are exceptional athletes misclassified because of the larger number of high-performing athletes within an event.

    “These sport-specific adjustments ensure that the quality of athletes included within a tier is not diluted by smaller field sizes, nor are exceptional athletes misclassified because of the larger number of high-performing athletes within an event.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Running is relatively inexpensive and has minimal skill/equipment requirements for recreational participation, making it popular worldwide (>200 countries represented at global championships).

    “For instance, running is relatively inexpensive and has minimal requirement for skill or equipment for participation at the recreational level, making it popular worldwide (>200 countries represented at global championships).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Points are often awarded to athletes based on competition outcomes which contribute to world ranking, with many sports adjusting points to prioritize key events.

    “Often, points are awarded to athletes based on competition outcomes which contribute to their world ranking, with many sports adjusting the way points are obtained to prioritize key events.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Identifying with a particular sport typically differentiates Tier 2 from Tier 1 individuals.

    “Identifying with a particular sport typically differentiates Tier 2: Trained/Developmental from Tier 1: Recreationally Active individuals”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The men's 50-km race walk was included as an Olympic Event from 1932 to 2020, the women's event has never featured on the Olympic Games program, and since World Athletics started recording times in 2017, only 182 athletes have posted verified times.

    “For instance, although the men's 50-km race walk was included as an Olympic Event from 1932 to 2020, the women's event has never featured on the Olympic Games program, and since World Athletics started recording times in 2017, only 182 athletes have posted verified times.43”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [43] source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    It is very common within Para sport for individuals to remain internationally competitive in their late 30s and 40s.

    “Furthermore, it is very common within Para sport for individuals to remain internationally competitive in their late 30s and 40s.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Some athletes can remain internationally competitive in their late 30s and 40s, for example in road cycling and long-distance triathlon.

    “Conversely, there are athletes who can remain internationally competitive in their late 30s and 40s (eg, road cycling and long-distance triathlon).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Many competitive hand cyclists have sustained a spinal cord injury later in life and compete internationally well into their 40s.

    “Moreover, many competitive hand cyclists have sustained a spinal cord injury later in life and compete internationally well into their 40s.59”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [59]

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Age effects on sports performance are not uniform across sports and even within sports; some individuals achieve world-class status at a relatively early age even in sports where intensive training loads commence in childhood, such as swimming and gymnastics.

    “However, these effects are not uniform across sports and even within sports; there are examples of extraordinary individuals who may achieve world-class status at a relatively early age, even in sports where intensive training loads commence in childhood (eg, swimming and gymnastics).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The depth within Para sports fluctuates greatly, which can be explained by the total number of athletes with the impairment type and/or the talent pathway programs and coaching support systems.

    “The depth within Para sports fluctuates greatly, which can be explained by the total number of athletes with the impairment type and/or the talent pathway programs and coaching support systems.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Chinese athletes have dominated table tennis, winning 52% of all available Olympic medals in the sport, while the US men's 'dream team' in basketball have won 16/20 Olympic gold medals.

    “There are numerous other examples of countries excelling at particular sports: Chinese athletes have dominated the sport of table tennis, winning 52% of all available Olympic medals in the sport, while US men's”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [52] source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Australia's concentration of success in water-associated sports is likely the result of a hot climate and extensive coastline, where such sports are culturally valued and have high participation rates.

    “This is likely the result of a hot climate and extensive coastline, where sports associated with water are culturally valued and have high participation rates.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Australia represents an example of concentrated sport success, with 60% of medals won at Olympic Games by Australians involving sports associated with water, whereas just 2.7% have come from Winter Sports.

    “Australia represents another example of concentrated sport success, with 60% of medals won at Olympic Games by Australians involving sports associated with water, whereas just 2.7% have come from Winter Sports.52”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [52] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Factors such as 'physical literacy' and 'sporting age' add complexity to categorizing Para athletes and can influence an individual's transition from Tier 1 to Tier 5.

    “Within the context of the Participant Classification Framework, there are a number of factors which add an additional layer of complexity to categorizing Para athletes, such as”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Within team sports such as wheelchair basketball, sports classification is based on players' functional capacity to complete the skills necessary to play the sport, and players are allocated points.
54 of 54

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Age plays a role in sports performance through biological maturity, training and competition maturity, and biological decline associated with aging.

    “Age plays a role in sports performance since it can interact with the biological maturity of the young athlete, training, and competition maturity across the athlete's development pathway, and the biological decline associated with aging.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The use and consistency for classifying training status in Paralympic sport remains in its infancy compared to nondisabled sport.

    “Despite the growing interest in Paralympic sport, the use and consistency for classifying training status remains in its infancy when compared to nondisabled sport.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    At IPC sanctioned events, the primary diagnosis of a participant must be stable and belong to one of the 10 impairment types (8 physical impairments, as well as visual and intellectual impairments).

    “It's even more complex, since at International Paralympic Committee (IPC) sanctioned events, the primary diagnosis of a participant must be stable and belong to one of the 10 impairment types (8 physical impairments, as well as visual and intellectual impairments).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Within team sports such as wheelchair basketball, sports classification is based on players' functional capacity to complete the skills necessary to play the sport, and players are allocated points.

    “However, within team sports such as wheelchair basketball, sports classification is based on the players' functional capacity to complete the skills necessary to play the sport, and players are allocated points.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    As with the introduction of any new event, it takes time to build depth within the field to see the best of human performance.

    “As with the introduction of any new event, it takes time to build depth within the field to see the best of human performance.”
5 of 5

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • The inclusion criteria for 1-RM and resistance training experience ensure that all subjects are at least advanced, well-trained athletes.

    “According to Santos et al. [49] and McKay et al. [50], the inclusion criteria for 1-RM and RT experience ensure that all subjects are at least advanced, well-trained athletes.”

    From How reliable is the labeling of a commercial phytosteroid product? A 12-week randomized double-blind training study (2025) · cites this paper as [50]

    In “How to Use the Participant Classification Framework” (page unavailable), training volume is a classification factor, so resistance-training experience is relevant. But “A New Paradigm for Participant Training and Performance Classification” distinguishes trained/developmental athletes from highly trained athletes using sport-specific performance standards. The paper does not say that 1-RM and resistance-training experience criteria ensure every subject is an advanced, highly trained athlete. (LLM, conf=0.83)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • The sample represents 12 world-class (Tier 5) and 40 international-level (Tier 4) athletes.

    “According to the classification proposed by McKay et al. (2022), the sample represents 12 world‐class athletes, (Tier 5) such as Olympic or World Championship medalists, and 40 international‐level athletes, (Tier 4) such as national team members, typically within 7% of world‐leading performances.”

    From Agreement between muscle saturation breakpoints and lactate thresholds: Muscles comparison and sex difference in world‐class Nordic skiers (2026) · cites this paper as McKay et al. (2022)

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Stefani citation points to a different reference

    Minor

    The text cites reference 40 for Stefani's taxonomy, but reference 40 is a Spotrac entry; Stefani's taxonomy is listed as reference 39.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 41

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  3. Dehghansai, 2017, Training and development of Canadian wheelchair basketball players, Eur J Sport Sci, 17, 511, 10.1080/17461391.2016.1276636 · DOI · Paper page
  4. Yanci, 2016, Muscle strength and anaerobic performance in football players with cerebral palsy, Disabil Health J, 9, 313, 10.1016/j.dhjo.2015.11.003 · DOI · Paper page
  5. West, 2014, Effects of abdominal binding on field-based exercise responses in Paralympic athletes with cervical spinal cord injury, J Sci Med Sport, 17, 351, 10.1016/j.jsams.2013.06.001 · DOI · Paper page
  6. Calderbank, 2020, Association of jumping ability and maximum strength with dive distance in swimmers, Int J Sports Physiol Perform, 16, 296, 10.1123/ijspp.2019-0773 · DOI · Paper page
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  9. Baumgart, 2018, Peak oxygen uptake in Paralympic sitting sports: a systematic literature review, meta-and pooled-data analysis, PLoS One, 13, e0192903, 10.1371/journal.pone.0192903 · DOI
  10. Carr, 2020, Altitude and heat training in preparation for competitions in the heat: a case study, Int J Sports Physiol Perform, 15, 1344, 10.1123/ijspp.2019-0292 · DOI
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  14. DiFiori, 2018, The NBA and youth basketball: recommendations for promoting a healthy and positive experience, Sports Med, 48, 2053, 10.1007/s40279-018-0950-0 · DOI · Paper page
  15. Wilber, 2012, Kenyan and Ethiopian distance runners: what makes them so good?, Int J Sports Physiol Perform, 7, 92, 10.1123/ijspp.7.2.92 · DOI · Paper page
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  17. Gladwell, 2008, Outliers: The Story of Success
  18. De Pauw, 2013, Guidelines to classify subject groups in sport-science research, Int J Sports Physiol Perform, 8, 111, 10.1123/ijspp.8.2.111 · DOI · Paper page
  19. Peeling, 2018, Evidence-based supplements for the enhancement of athletic performance, Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab, 28, 178, 10.1123/ijsnem.2017-0343 · DOI · Paper page
  20. Niemiro, 2018, Circulating progenitor cell response to exercise in wheelchair racing athletes, Med Sci Sports Exerc, 50, 88, 10.1249/mss.0000000000001402 · DOI · Paper page
  21. Betts, 2020, PRESENT 2020: text expanding on the checklist for proper reporting of evidence in sport and exercise nutrition trials, Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab, 30, 2, 10.1123/ijsnem.2019-0326 · DOI
  22. Graham-Paulson, 2018, Case study: dose response of caffeine on 20-km handcycling time trial performance in a paratriathlete, Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab, 28, 274, 10.1123/ijsnem.2017-0089 · DOI · Paper page
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  39. Vaeyens, 2009, Talent identification and promotion programmes of Olympic athletes, J Sports Sci, 27, 1367, 10.1080/02640410903110974 · DOI
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Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
McKay, A. K. A., Stellingwerff, T., Smith, E. S., Martin, D. T., Mujika, I., Goosey-Tolfrey, V. L., Sheppard, J., & Burke, L. M.
ORCID
Venue
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
Publisher
Human Kinetics
Published
2022-02-01
Volume
17
Issue
2
Pages
317-331
ISSN
  • 1555-0265 (ISSN-L)
  • 1555-0273
DOI
10.1123/ijspp.2021-0451
OpenAlex
W4206651290
Cited by
3,093
References
39
Citations by year
2026: 1002 · 2025: 871 · 2024: 632 · 2023: 402 · 2022: 155 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 3 · 2014: 1 · 2012: 2
FWCI
296.00
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Sport Psychology and Performance
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Physical Activity and Health
Keywords
training status, training volume, performance indicators, recreational athletes, national athletes, world-class athletes, participant recruitment, gender parity, youth athletes, masters athletes, Paralympic athletes, terminology standardization
MeSH terms
Humans, Retrospective Studies, Sports, Sports Medicine, Exercise, Athletic Performance, Athletes

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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