Handling techniques and risk factors reported by veterinary professionals during dog examinations: a cross-sectional survey across Canada and the United States
Open accessAbstract
Introduction: Handling techniques are known to influence dog stress in veterinary settings; however, little is known about the current handling techniques applied to dogs during routine veterinary care or risk factors associated with their use. This cross-sectional survey aimed to assess common handling techniques used on calm, fearful, and aggressive dogs by veterinary professionals in Canada and the United States and identify risk factors for minimal and full-body restraint. Methods: A convenience sample of veterinary professionals completed an online questionnaire. It collected information on participant characteristics and clinic experience (e.g., gender, Ten Item Personality Index, bite history, stress-reducing certification), participant professional quality of life (using the ProQOL scale), general examination practices (e.g., use of treats), perceptions and importance of examination factors (e.g., staff safety), and frequency of using 14 different dog handling techniques. Logistic regression models were used to identify risk factors for the use of minimal and full-body restraint on fearful and aggressive dogs. Results: Participants ( N = 691) were veterinarians (39.2%, 271/691) and non-veterinarians (60.8%, 420/691), who routinely handle dogs during routine examinations in Canada (21.7%, 150/691) and the United States (79.1%, 541/691). Minimal restraint was reported to be used for calm (82.7%, 566/684), fearful (73.1%, 499/683), and aggressive (51.9%, 352/678) dogs during routine examinations. Full-body restraint was commonly reported to be used for calm dogs (58.5%, 400/684) and most frequently reported for fearful (63.9%, 434/679) and aggressive dogs (68.6%, 465/678). Handling decisions were influenced by factors including age, gender, practice type, graduation year, bite history, stress-reducing certification, and owner presence. Professionals prioritizing staff safety and using stress-reducing strategies (e.g., treats) were more likely to use minimal restraint, while owner presence and focus on examination completeness were linked to full-body restraint. Personality traits and professional well-being, particularly extraversion and secondary traumatic stress, also influenced handling choices. Discussion: Handling techniques vary with dog behavior and are shaped by numerous factors, highlighting the complex relationship between personal and clinic-level influences on veterinary staff interactions with dog patients. These findings generate hypotheses for future observational research exploring factors that support stress-reducing techniques to improve dog welfare in clinical settings.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Excessive arousal can impact the quality of care dogs receive; handlers may respond to aroused or difficult-to-handle dogs with more restrictive, forceful handling and fewer positive interactions.
“Excessive arousal can also impact the quality of care dogs receive; to maintain control and safety during husbandry tasks (e.g., moving animals), handlers may respond to aroused or difficult-to-handle dogs with more restrictive, forceful handling and fewer positive interactions (20).”
From Combined enrichment and pharmaceutical intervention reduces excessive arousal in shelter dogs in a randomized controlled trial (2026) · cites this paper as [20]
The Results (Dog-handling practices; page not supplied) report that aggressive dogs were more often handled with secure or full-body restraint, and that some staff increased restraint when a dog struggled. The paper concerns veterinary examinations, not moving dogs during husbandry tasks, and the retrieved passages do not show that handlers have fewer positive interactions with aroused dogs. Most respondents said they released restraint when a dog struggled. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Development of a new resilience scale: The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC)
Connor, K. M., & Davidson, J. R. T. (2003) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.10113 · Cited by 11,793 · see citing works
A very brief measure of the Big-Five personality domains
Gosling, S. D., Rentfrow, P. J., & Swann, W. B. (2003) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/s0092-6566(03)00046-1 · Cited by 8,307 · see citing works
Veterinary Epidemiologic Research
Dohoo, I. R., Martin, S. W., & Stryhn, H. (2009) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,912 · see citing works
Understanding and managing the threat of common method bias: Detection, prevention and control
Kock, F., Berbekova, A., & Assaf, A. G. (2021) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2021.104330 · Cited by 1,692 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Displays of aggression also pose a safety risk to veterinary staff, as animal bite and scratch injuries are among the most common injuries reported by veterinary staff across various countries, including the United States (11–14).”
Physician wellness: a missing quality indicator
Wallace, J. E., Lemaire, J. B., & Ghali, W. A. (2009) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(09)61424-0 · Cited by 1,608 · see citing works
Sadler, G. R., Lee, H.-C., Lim, R. S.-H., & Fullerton, J. T. (2010) · Nursing and Health Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1442-2018.2010.00541.x · Cited by 1,293 · see citing works
Compassion Fatigue among Healthcare, Emergency and Community Service Workers: A Systematic Review.
Cocker, F., & Joss, N. (2016) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph13060618 · Cited by 599 · see citing works
Human–animal interactions in livestock production
Hemsworth, P. H. (2003) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/s0168-1591(02)00280-0 · Cited by 537 · see citing works
Measuring behaviour: an introductory guide
(1994) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.31-6319 · Cited by 468 · see citing works
Manifestations of chronic and acute stress in dogs
Beerda, B., Schilder, M. B. H., van Hooff, J. A. R. A. M., & de Vries, H. W. (1997) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/s0168-1591(96)01131-8 · Cited by 445 · see citing works
Got Bots? Practical Recommendations to Protect Online Survey Data from Bot Attacks
Storozuk, A., Ashley, M., Delage, V., & Maloney, E. A. (2020) · The Quantitative Methods for Psychology · doi:10.20982/tqmp.16.5.p472 · Cited by 329 · see citing works
Waiblinger, S., Menke, C., & Coleman, G. J. (2002) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/s0168-1591(02)00155-7 · Cited by 292 · see citing works
Psychological Stress Impairs Early Wound Repair Following Surgery
Broadbent, E., Petrie, K. J., Alley, P. G., & Booth, R. J. (2003) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/01.psy.0000088589.92699.30 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
Executive summary of the Bayer veterinary care usage study
Volk, J. O., Felsted, K. E., Thomas, J. G., & Siren, C. W. (2011) · Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association · doi:10.2460/javma.238.10.1275 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Pain and Problem Behavior in Cats and Dogs
Mills, D. S., Demontigny-Bédard, I., Gruen, M. E., Klinck, M. P., McPeake, K. J., Barcelos, A. M., Hewison, L., Haevermaet, H. V., Denenberg, S., Hauser, H., et al. (2020) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani10020318 · Cited by 238 · see citing works
Lloyd, J. (2017) · Veterinary Sciences · doi:10.3390/vetsci4020022 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
A Review on Mitigating Fear and Aggression in Dogs and Cats in a Veterinary Setting
Riemer, S., Heritier, C., Windschnurer, I., Arhant, C., Pratsch, L., & Affenzeller, N. (2021) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani11010158 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Fear-related behaviour of dogs in veterinary practice
Döring, D., Roscher, A., Scheipl, F., Küchenhoff, H., & Erhard, M. (2008) · The Veterinary Journal · doi:10.1016/j.tvjl.2008.05.006 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
The effects of fear and anxiety on health and lifespan in pet dogs
Dreschel, N. A. (2010) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2010.04.003 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Work-related accidents and occupational diseases in veterinarians and their staff
Nienhaus, A., Skudlik, C., & Seidler, A. (2005) · International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health · doi:10.1007/s00420-004-0583-5 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Stress and strain among veterinarians: a scoping review
Pohl, R., Botscharow, J., Böckelmann, I., & Thielmann, B. (2022) · Irish Veterinary Journal · doi:10.1186/s13620-022-00220-x · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Disease and injury among veterinarians
Phillips, M., Jeyaretnam, J., & JONES, H. (2000) · Australian Veterinary Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1751-0813.2000.tb11939.x · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Csoltova, E., Martineau, M., Boissy, A., & Gilbert, C. (2017) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.05.013 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Ceballos, M. C., Sant’Anna, A. C., Boivin, X., Costa, F. D. O., Carvalhal, M. V. D. L., & da Costa, M. J. R. P. (2018) · Livestock Science · doi:10.1016/j.livsci.2018.06.019 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Hansen, B. G., & Østerås, O. (2019) · Preventive Veterinary Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2019.104741 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Hekman, J. P., Karas, A. Z., & Sharp, C. R. (2014) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani4020331 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
The Pet-friendly Veterinary Practice
Herron, M. E., & Shreyer, T. (2014) · Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice · doi:10.1016/j.cvsm.2014.01.010 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
A Review of Medical Conditions and Behavioral Problems in Dogs and Cats
Camps, T., Amat, M., & Manteca, X. (2019) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani9121133 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Addressing Canine and Feline Aggression in the Veterinary Clinic
Moffat, K. (2008) · Veterinary Clinics of North America Small Animal Practice · doi:10.1016/j.cvsm.2008.04.007 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Prevalence of mental health outcomes among Canadian veterinarians
Perret, J. L., Best, C. O., Coe, J. B., Greer, A. L., Khosa, D. K., & Jones‐Bitton, A. (2020) · Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association · doi:10.2460/javma.256.3.365 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Injury in Australian veterinarians
Fritschi, L., Day, L., Shirangi, A., Robertson, I., Lucas, M., & Vizard, A. (2006) · Occupational Medicine · doi:10.1093/occmed/kqj037 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
The assessment of dog welfare in the waiting room of a veterinary clinic
Mariti, C., Raspanti, E., Zilocchi, M., Carlone, B., & Gazzano, A. (2015) · Animal Welfare · doi:10.7120/09627286.24.3.299 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Ouedraogo, F., Lefebvre, S. L., Hansen, C., & Brorsen, B. W. (2021) · Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association · doi:10.2460/javma.258.11.1259 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Effects of human–dog familiarity on dogs’ behavioural responses to petting
Kühne, F., Hößler, J. C., & Struwe, R. (2012) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2012.10.003 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Occupational health hazards in veterinary medicine: physical, psychological, and chemical hazards.
Epp, T. Y., & Waldner, C. (2012) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Psychogenic stress in hospitalized veterinary patients: Causation, implications, and therapies
Lefman, S. H., & Prittie, J. E. (2019) · Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care · doi:10.1111/vec.12821 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Significant injuries in Australian veterinarians and use of safety precautions
Lucas, M., Day, L., Shirangi, A., & Fritschi, L. (2009) · Occupational Medicine · doi:10.1093/occmed/kqp070 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Stellato, A. C., Dewey, C. E., Widowski, T. M., & Niel, L. (2020) · Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association · doi:10.2460/javma.2020.257.10.1031 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Self-citationCan you handle it? Validating negative responses to restraint in cats
Moody, C., Picketts, V., Mason, G., Dewey, C., & Niel, L. (2018) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2018.04.012 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citationGender differences in veterinarian-client-patient communication in companion animal practice
Shaw, J. R., Bonnett, B. N., ROTER, D. L., Adams, C. L., & Larson, S. (2012) · Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association · doi:10.2460/javma.241.1.81 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
The treatment of phobias in the dog
Walker, R., Fisher, J., & Neville, P. F. (1997) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/s0168-1591(96)01128-8 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Stockpeople and Animal Welfare: Compatibilities, Contradictions, and Unresolved Ethical Dilemmas
Losada-Espinosa, N., la Lama, G. C. M., & Estévez-Moreno, L. X. (2020) · Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10806-019-09813-z · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Risk-factors associated with veterinary-related fear and aggression in owned domestic dogs
Stellato, A. C., Flint, H. E., Dewey, C. E., Widowski, T. M., & Niel, L. (2021) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105374 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Complex Relationship Between Veterinarian Mental Health and Client Satisfaction
Perret, J. L., Best, C. O., Coe, J. B., Greer, A. L., Khosa, D. K., & Jones‐Bitton, A. (2020) · Frontiers in Veterinary Science · doi:10.3389/fvets.2020.00092 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Stellato, A. C., Jajou, S., Dewey, C. E., Widowski, T. M., & Niel, L. (2019) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani9100767 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationArhant, C., Hörschläger, N., & Troxler, J. (2019) · Journal of Veterinary Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jveb.2019.01.004 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Analyse du comportement des chiens et des chats pendant l’examen physique en cabinet vétérinaire
Glardon, J. O., Hartnack, S., & Horisberger, L. (2010) · Schweizer Archiv für Tierheilkunde · doi:10.1024/0036-7281.a000016 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Getting a grip: cats respond negatively to scruffing and clips
Moody, C. M., Mason, G. J., Dewey, C. E., & Niel, L. (2019) · Veterinary Record · doi:10.1136/vr.105261 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationCampbell, M., Hagen, B. N. M., Gohar, B., Wichtel, J. J., & Jones‐Bitton, A. (2023) · Frontiers in Veterinary Science · doi:10.3389/fvets.2023.1064932 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Work-life balance is essential to reducing burnout, improving well-being
Volk, J. O., Schimmack, U., Strand, E. B., Reinhard, A. R., Hahn, J., Andrews, J., Probyn-Smith, K., & Jones, R. (2024) · Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association · doi:10.2460/javma.24.02.0135 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Squair, C., Proudfoot, K. L., Montelpare, W. J., & Overall, K. L. (2023) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani13071253 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Helsly, M., Priymenko, N., Girault, C., Duranton, C., & Gaunet, F. (2022) · The Veterinary Journal · doi:10.1016/j.tvjl.2022.105789 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Dog Owner Perceptions of Veterinary Handling Techniques
Carroll, A. D., Cisneros, A., Porter, H., Moody, C. M., & Stellato, A. C. (2022) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani12111387 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citationMoody, C. M., Dewey, C. E., & Niel, L. (2020) · Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association · doi:10.2460/javma.256.9.1020 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationByrne, A., & Arnott, G. (2024) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2024.106403 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Squair, C., Proudfoot, K. L., Montelpare, W. J., Doucette, T. A., & Overall, K. L. (2024) · Animal Welfare · doi:10.1017/awf.2024.37 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Edwards, P. T., Smith, B. P., McArthur, M. L., & Hazel, S. J. (2023) · Anthrozoös · doi:10.1080/08927936.2023.2204639 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Cisneros, A., Carroll, A. D., Moody, C. M., & Stellato, A. C. (2025) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2025.106601 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationBetter veterinary visits – working towards a patient-friendly practice
Ryan, L. (2018) · Veterinary Nursing Journal · doi:10.1080/17415349.2018.1462129 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Pet owners’ perceptions of veterinary safety practices
Fowler, H. N., Irimia, B., Ramirez, V., Meischke, H. W., & Rabinowitz, P. M. (2018) · Veterinary Record · doi:10.1136/vr.104624 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Exploring Valued Personality Traits in Practicing Veterinarians
Kunze, A. J., & Seals, C. (2021) · Journal of Veterinary Medical Education · doi:10.3138/jvme-2021-0051 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 64 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- [28]Landsberg GM Hunthausen W Ackerman L. Handbook of behavior problems of the dog and cat. 2nd ed. Oxford: Elsevier Health Sciences (2003).
- [47]Gottfried J. Practices in data-quality evaluation: a large-scale review of online survey studies published in 2022. Adv Methods Pract Psychol Sci. (2024) 7, 1–7. doi: 10.1177/2515245924123641 · DOI
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Nakonechny, L., Cisneros, A., Moody, C. M., & Stellato, A. C. (2025) · American Journal of Veterinary Research · doi:10.2460/ajvr.25.10.0355 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationNakonechny, L., Schroeder, K., & Stellato, A. C. (2026) · Frontiers in Veterinary Science · doi:10.3389/fvets.2026.1761014 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationCisneros, A., O’Hanley, K., Moody, C. M., & Stellato, A. C. (2026) · Frontiers in Veterinary Science · doi:10.3389/fvets.2026.1931203
“Excessive arousal can also impact the quality of care dogs receive; to maintain control and safety during husbandry tasks (e.g., moving animals), handlers may respond to aroused or difficult-to-han-dle dogs with more restrictive, forceful handling and fewer positive interactions (20).”
Self-citationNakonechny, L., Pulver, V., Artemiou, E., & Stellato, A. C. (2026) · Frontiers in Veterinary Science · doi:10.3389/fvets.2026.1910028
Self-citation
- Authors
- Nakonechny, L., Cisneros, A., Moody, C. M., & Stellato, A. C.
- Affiliations
- Texas Tech University (US)
- University of California, Davis (US)
- Corresponding author
- Stellato, Anastasia Chiara
- Venue
- Frontiers in Veterinary Science
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2025-08-18
- Volume
- 12
- Pages
- 1634970-1634970
- ISSN
- 2297-1769 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC12400514
- OpenAlex
- W4413283874
- Cited by
- 3
- References
- 64
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3
- FWCI
- 3.59
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Update notices
- correction (2026-04-14)
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Frontiers in Veterinary Science (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- ThinkTech (Texas Tech University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Speech and Hearing › Veterinary Practice and Education Studies
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Human-Animal Interaction Studies
- Keywords
- canine aggression, canine fear, veterinary professionals, staff safety, secondary traumatic stress, professional quality of life, extraversion, Canada, United States, cross-cultural comparison, human-animal interaction
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
