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Cited by 0Animal Behavior and Welfare StudiesHuman-Animal Interaction StudiesVeterinary Pharmacology and Anesthesia

Combined enrichment and pharmaceutical intervention reduces excessive arousal in shelter dogs in a randomized controlled trial

Open access
Cisneros, Alissa, O’Hanley, Kristina, Moody, Carly M., Stellato, Anastasia C.·2026·Frontiers in Veterinary Science
DOI 10.3389/fvets.2026.1931203PMC PMC13581901
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Abstract

Introduction Environmental stressors in animal shelters may lead to development of excessive arousal, posing risks to adoptability and behavioral euthanasia. Recommendations regarding excessive arousal in shelter dogs include providing pharmaceuticals and enrichment. Methods A randomized controlled trial was conducted to assess the influence of enrichment and pharmaceutical interventions on shelter dogs ( N = 50) displaying excessive arousal from a municipal animal shelter in Texas, United States. Data were collected during 1 week of baseline conditions (days 1–7) and 1 week of treatment (days 8–14). Dogs were randomly assigned to a treatment group: (1) baseline (5-min walk, 2x/day), (2) calm enrichment (15-min walks 2x/day,15-min human-animal interaction), (3) active enrichment (15-min play 2x/day, 15-min human-animal interaction), (4) pharmaceutical (20 mg/kg gabapentin, 6 mg/kg trazodone, 5-min walk 2x/day), and (5) pharmaceutical and calm enrichment (20 mg/kg gabapentin, 6 mg/kg trazodone, 15-min walk 2x/day, 15-min human-animal interaction). Arousal scores (0 = no arousal, 4 = extreme arousal) and ease of transition out of kennel scores (0 = no difficulty, 4 = extreme difficulty) were assigned. Behaviors were assessed before, during, and after enrichment provision. All assessments occurred on days 1, 3, 7, 10, and 14. Results During post-enrichment, the baseline group had higher arousal scores compared to active enrichment ( p = 0.041), pharmaceutical ( p = 0.001), and pharmaceutical and calm enrichment ( p < 0.001) groups. Arousal scores were lower day 10 ( p < 0.001) and day 14 ( p = 0.003; vs. day 1). The pharmaceutical and calm enrichment group exhibited had less lip licking ( p = 0.004), panting ( p = 0.032), vocalizations ( p = 0.003), and jumping ( p < 0.001) compared to all treatments. The pharmaceutical group (vs. baseline) had less jumping ( p < 0.001) and more body shaking ( p = 0.003). Post-enrichment (vs. pre-enrichment) observations had less paw lifting ( p < 0.001), yawning ( p = 0.011), vocalizations ( p < 0.001), and more lip licking ( p < 0.001), environmental scanning ( p = 0.002) and panting ( p = 0.002). Dogs in kennels near exits had less paw lifting ( p = 0.013) compared to dogs housed in between high arousal dogs. Longer stays were associated with more alert behavior ( p = 0.001) and less environmental scanning ( p = 0.04), lip licking ( p = 0.013), and vocalizing ( p = 0.029). Discussion Results suggest enrichment and pharmaceutical interventions may reduce excessive arousal in shelter dogs and can be used to inform shelter intervention protocols aimed at promoting welfare and adoptability.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In a randomized controlled trial with 50 analyzed shelter dogs showing excessive arousal, combined gabapentin/trazodone plus calm enrichment produced the most consistent reductions in arousal-related behavior. Post-enrichment arousal was lower than baseline for active enrichment, pharmaceutical, and combined groups, with the combined group showing the broadest behavioral improvements.

Key findings

  • During post-enrichment, baseline dogs had higher arousal scores than active enrichment (p = 0.041), pharmaceutical (p = 0.001), and pharmaceutical plus calm enrichment (p < 0.001) groups; arousal scores were lower on day 10 (p < 0.001) and day 14 (p = 0.003) versus day 1.
  • The pharmaceutical plus calm enrichment group had less lip licking (p = 0.004), panting (p = 0.032), vocalizations (p = 0.003), and jumping (p < 0.001) compared to comparison treatments, per the abstract.
  • Pharmaceutical alone versus baseline was associated with less jumping (p < 0.001) and more body shaking (p = 0.003).
  • Post-enrichment versus pre-enrichment observations showed less paw lifting (p < 0.001), yawning (p = 0.011), and vocalizations (p < 0.001), but more lip licking (p < 0.001), environmental scanning (p = 0.002), and panting (p = 0.002).

Methods

  • Randomized controlled trial at a municipal shelter in Lubbock, Texas, March–October 2025. Dogs were sourced (N = 62) and 50 were analyzed after 12 exclusions; eligibility required age 1–8 years, vaccinations, no current medical issues, and excessive arousal score of 3 on both in-kennel and out-of-kennel 1-minute assessments.
  • Five treatment groups: baseline (5-min walk 2×/day), calm enrichment (15-min walks 2×/day plus 15-min human-animal interaction), active enrichment (15-min play 2×/day plus 15-min human-animal interaction), pharmaceutical (20 mg/kg gabapentin and 6 mg/kg trazodone 2×/day plus 5-min walks 2×/day), and pharmaceutical plus calm enrichment. Dogs received 1 baseline week (days 1–7) and 1 treatment week (days 8–14), with assessments on days 1, 3, 7, 10, and 14.
  • Video-recorded behaviors were scored using an ethogram, plus 0–4 arousal and 0–4 ease-of-transition scores. Mixed regression models in Stata v17 included dog as a random effect, with backwards selection and assessment of biologically plausible interactions.

Limitations

  • The paper states that the study was conducted in a single high-volume municipal shelter (capacity 359 dogs), limiting generalizability to lower-volume shelters; all dogs were relocated to furnished study kennels and many moved from pair- to single-housing, which may have affected behavior independent of treatment.
  • The paper also states that the intervention period was only 1 week, long-term effects are unknown, pharmaceuticals were administered with peanut butter, spray cheese, or wet food (a possible nutritional-enrichment confound), and uncontrolled factors such as shelter staff handling, dog behavioral history, source demographics, staff kennel placement, and unknown underlying motivation may have influenced results.
  • Evident from the text: the analyzed sample was 50 dogs across five groups (about 10 per group), arousal and ease-of-transition scores were assigned by one investigator, and the pharmaceutical groups lacked a placebo-controlled food/capsule comparison.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3389/fvets.2026.1931203

Cites

50 of 50 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

24 of 77 cited sources checked · 9 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Mitigating excessive arousal in animal shelters may support adoption success and adaptation to home environments.

    “Mitigating excessive arousal in animal shelters may therefore support adoption success and adaptation to home environments, either as pet dogs or in working roles (e.g., assistance dogs) (23).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [23] Kiiroja, 2025, PTSD assistance dogs: concerns for animal well-being, rights, and justice, Front Vet Sci source

      The 'Potential welfare concerns of PTSD assistance dogs' section says kennel conditions can cause stress and hyperactivity, and that resulting behavioural issues may compromise shelter-sourced dogs’ future welfare and performance as assistance dogs. This supports the proposed benefit for working roles, but the paper does not link mitigating arousal to adoption success or adaptation to a home as a pet. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Previous research in shelter dogs has demonstrated reductions in behavioral and physiological indicators of negative affect through provisions of positive human-animal interactions.

    “While research to date has not specifically explored ways to reduce excessive arousal, previous research in shelter dogs has demonstrated reductions in behavioral (e.g., vocalizations, panting) and physiological (e.g., heart rate and cortisol) indicators of negative affect through provisions of positive human-animal interactions, such as petting sessions or physical exercise (4, 27–33).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 8 sources checked
    • cites [4] Coppola, 2006, Human interaction and cortisol: can human contact reduce stress for shelter dogs?, Physiol Behav source
    • cites [27] Hennessy, 1998, Influence of male and female petters on plasma cortisol and behaviour: can human interaction reduce the stress of dogs in a public animal shelter?, Appl Anim Behav Sci source
    • cites [28] Normando, 2009, Effects of an enhanced human interaction program on shelter dogs' behaviour analysed using a novel nonparametric test, Appl Anim Behav Sci source
    • cites [29] Willen, 2017, Factors determining the effects of human interaction on the cortisol levels of shelter dogs, Appl Anim Behav Sci source

      The Discussion reports that petting reduced anxiety and excitement behaviors and cortisol responses in shelter dogs; it also describes cortisol reductions with walking and exercise. The cited paper does not report a reduction in heart rate from positive human interaction—the only heart-rate mention found is in a reference title. It also notes that the cortisol effect was temporary and was not significant in dogs relinquished by their owners. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [30] Shiverdecker, 2013, Human interaction moderates plasma cortisol and behavioral responses of dogs to shelter housing, Physiol Behav source
    • cites [31] McGowan, 2018, Can you spare 15 min? The measurable positive impact of a 15-min petting session on shelter dog well-being, Appl Anim Behav Sci source
    • cites [32] Menor-Campos, 2011, Effects of exercise and human contact on animal welfare in a dog shelter, Vet Rec source
    • cites [33] Arena, 2019, Application of a welfare assessment tool (shelter quality protocol) in 64 Italian long-term dogs' shelters: welfare hazard analysis, Anim Welf source
  • Premisecitation

    Displays of excessive arousal can be undesirable to potential adopters, resulting in an increased length of stay in the animal shelter.

    “Further, displays of excessive arousal (e.g., vocalizations, repetitive movement back-and-forth) can also be undesirable to potential adopters, resulting in an increased length of stay in the animal shelter (17–19).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [17] Wells, 2000, The influence of environmental change on the behaviour of sheltered dogs, Appl Anim Behav Sci source
    • cites [18] Wells, 2002, The influence of length of time in a rescue shelter on the behaviour of kennelled dogs, Anim Welf source

      The Animal welfare implications section says that behaviours unattractive to potential adopters may reduce dogs’ chances of adoption, and the paper links this to longer kennel stays. It does not identify excessive arousal or repetitive back-and-forth movement as those behaviours: it reports no stereotypies, and the Discussion says dogs staying longer barked less, not more. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [19] Raudies, 2021, Characteristics and welfare of long-term shelter dogs, Animals (Basel) source

      The Discussion (§4.1; page not provided) links high arousal to lower adoption chances for long-term shelter dogs. But it explicitly says the study cannot determine whether unwanted behaviours caused a longer stay or developed during it, so the claimed causal effect on length of stay is not established. The cited passages also do not establish repetitive back-and-forth movement as an example of the relevant high-arousal behaviour. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Excessive arousal may impact cognitive performance, as dogs displaying higher arousal can have decreased inhibitory control during training.

    “Additionally, excessive arousal may impact cognitive performance, as dogs displaying higher level of arousal can have decreased inhibitory control during training (22).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [22] Bray, 2015, Increasing arousal enhances inhibitory control in calm but not excitable dogs, Anim Cogn source

      The Abstract reports that more highly aroused pet dogs performed worst on an inhibitory-control detour task when strongly encouraged. The Methods describe this as an experiment with high- and low-arousal trials, not a study of dogs during training; that setting is not supported. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Excessive arousal can impact the quality of care dogs receive; handlers may respond to aroused or difficult-to-handle dogs with more restrictive, forceful handling and fewer positive interactions.

    “Excessive arousal can also impact the quality of care dogs receive; to maintain control and safety during husbandry tasks (e.g., moving animals), handlers may respond to aroused or difficult-to-handle dogs with more restrictive, forceful handling and fewer positive interactions (20).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [20] Nakonechny, 2025, Handling techniques and risk factors reported by veterinary professionals during dog examinations: a cross-sectional survey across Canada and the United States, Front Vet Sci source

      The Results (Dog-handling practices; page not supplied) report that aggressive dogs were more often handled with secure or full-body restraint, and that some staff increased restraint when a dog struggled. The paper concerns veterinary examinations, not moving dogs during husbandry tasks, and the retrieved passages do not show that handlers have fewer positive interactions with aroused dogs. Most respondents said they released restraint when a dog struggled. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 44
  • May combine two claims. 25

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Dogs can experience emotional contagion in response to vocalizations from dogs in neighboring kennels.

    “Also, dogs can experience emotional contagion in response to vocalizations from dogs in neighboring kennels (5).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [5] Huber, 2017, Investigating emotional contagion in dogs (Canis familiaris) to emotional sounds of humans and conspecifics, Anim Cogn source

      The Discussion interprets dogs’ responses to negative emotional sounds as an indicator of emotional contagion. But the Materials and methods (Stimuli; Apparatus and set-up) describe recorded dog vocalizations played through a loudspeaker in experimental rooms, not vocalizations from dogs in neighboring kennels. The kennel setting is unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Persistent behaviors may be redirected toward inanimate objects and people, and may escalate to aggressive-like behaviors, posing a risk to animal and human safety and increasing risk of euthanasia.

    “Persistent behaviors may be redirected toward inanimate objects (e.g., destructive chewing of toys, beds) and people (e.g., nipping, mouthing), and may escalate to aggressive-like behaviors (snapping, biting) (13), posing a risk to animal and human safety, increasing risk of euthanasia (17–19).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [13] Reid, 2022 source
    • cites [17] Wells, 2000, The influence of environmental change on the behaviour of sheltered dogs, Appl Anim Behav Sci source
    • cites [18] Wells, 2002, The influence of length of time in a rescue shelter on the behaviour of kennelled dogs, Anim Welf source

      The citation to this paper is attached to the proposed redirection and escalation of persistent behaviours, not to the later safety and euthanasia claims, which have separate citations. The Procedure section records activity and vocalisation, while the Animal welfare implications section says no dogs were observed exhibiting abnormal behaviours such as stereotypies or self-mutilation. Searches for chewing, nipping, mouthing, snapping and biting found no passage addressing the proposed progression. (LLM, conf=0.75)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [19] Raudies, 2021, Characteristics and welfare of long-term shelter dogs, Animals (Basel) source

      Methods §2.5 lists destructive behaviour, mouthing hands or clothes, and redirected aggression among the behaviours assessed. It does not say that persistent behaviours are redirected toward objects or people, or that they escalate from mouthing to snapping or biting. The safety and euthanasia clause has separate citations (17–19), so it is not assessed against this source. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Providing olfactory and auditory enrichment, 15-min of vigorous exercise and calm human-animal interactions is associated with reduced performance of arousal-related behaviors.

    “Prior research has also discovered that providing olfactory and auditory enrichment (34), 15-min of vigorous exercise and calm human-animal interactions (35) is associated with reduced performance of arousal-related behaviors (e.g., jumping and vocalizations).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [34] Amaya, 2020, Effects of olfactory and auditory enrichment on the behaviour of shelter dogs, Animals (Basel) source
    • cites [35] Protopopova, 2018, The effects of exercise and calm interactions on in-kennel behavior of shelter dogs, Behav Process source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Evidence supports use of trazodone in dogs for reducing negatively valanced behaviors during veterinary hospitalization and for improving adoption success by reducing length of stay in shelter settings.

    “Evidence supporting the use of trazodone in dogs in reducing the performance of negatively valanced behaviors (e.g., lip licking, panting, whining) has been observed during veterinary hospitalization (37–39), and for improving adoption success by reducing the length of stay in shelter settings (40).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [37] Kim, 2022, Effects of trazodone on behavioral and physiological signs of stress in dogs during veterinary visits: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled crossover clinical trial, J Am Vet Med Assoc source
    • cites [38] Gilbert-Gregory, 2016, Effects of trazodone on behavioral signs of stress in hospitalized dogs, J Am Vet Med Assoc source
    • cites [39] Dillon, 2023, The efficacy of trazodone in reducing stress-related behaviours in hospitalised dogs or dogs confined postsurgery, Vet Evid source
    • cites [40] Abrams, 2020, Trazodone as a mediator of transitional stress in a shelter: effects on illness, length of stay, and outcome, J Vet Behav source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation

    Administration of pharmaceuticals has been recommended to help reduce negative affect and arousal levels and increase an animal's receptivity and responsiveness to behavioral interventions.

    “Administration of pharmaceuticals has been recommended to help reduce negative affect and arousal levels and increase an animal’s receptivity and responsiveness to behavioral interventions and modifications (25, 26, 43–47).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 7 sources checked
    • cites [25] Weiss, 2015 source
    • cites [26] Landsberg, 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [43] 2024

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [44] Lem, 2020, Behavior modification and pharmacotherapy for separation anxiety in a 2-year-old pointer cross, Can Vet J

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [45] Warnes, 2021, Using psychopharmacology in the treatment of problem behaviours in dogs and cats, Companion Anim source
    • cites [46] McPeake, 2017, The use of imepitoin (Pexion™) on fear- and anxiety-related problems in dogs: a case series, BMC Vet Res source

      The Background recommends psychopharmacological agents as potential adjuncts to behaviour modification for dogs with fear and anxiety problems. The Results report reduced negative activation with imepitoin alongside a behaviour modification programme, but the paper does not establish that medication reduces arousal or makes animals more receptive and responsive to behavioural interventions. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [47] Eagan, 2023, Daily gabapentin improved behavior modification progress and decreased stress in shelter cats from hoarding environments in a double-blind randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial, J Am Vet Med Assoc source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Both enrichment and pharmacological support may promote positive welfare outcomes.

    “Beyond reducing negative states, both enrichment and pharmacological support may also promote positive welfare outcomes (48).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [48] Mellor, 2016, Moving beyond the “five freedoms” by updating the “five provisions” and introducing aligned “animal welfare aims”, Animals source

      The Discussion (section 4; page unavailable) describes environmental choices and other opportunities intended to give animals pleasurable experiences, supporting the enrichment part of the claim. The passages found for pharmacological support do not say that medication promotes positive welfare outcomes, so that part is unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Use of gabapentin in dogs has been recommended for reductions in impulsivity, anxiety disorders, and fear-related behaviors.

    “Similarly, the use of gabapentin in dogs has been recommended for reductions in impulsivity, anxiety disorders (36), and in fear-related behaviors (e.g., hiding, body posture, lip licking) (41, 42).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [36] Overall, 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [41] Bleuer-Elsner, 2021, Effects of a single oral dose of gabapentin on storm phobia in dogs: a double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial, Vet Rec source
    • cites [42] Stollar, 2022, Effects of a single dose of orally administered gabapentin in dogs during a veterinary visit: a double-blinded, placebo-controlled study, J Am Vet Med Assoc source

      The Behavioral data and Discussion report less lip licking in dogs given gabapentin during a veterinary visit, supporting the fear-related-behavior portion of the claim. They do not report reduced hiding, and the authors say the small reduction in sitting posture was unlikely to be clinically significant. The sentence attaches a different citation to impulsivity and anxiety disorders, so those are not attributed to this paper. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Significant reductions in negative affective states were reported in dog owners instructed to pair a personalized behavior modification program with imepitoin.

    “For example, significant reductions in negative affective states were reported in dog owners instructed to pair a personalized behavior modification program with the pharmaceutical imepitoin (46), which has anxiolytic properties similar to gabapentin and trazodone.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [46] McPeake, 2017, The use of imepitoin (Pexion™) on fear- and anxiety-related problems in dogs: a case series, BMC Vet Res source

      The Results (Effects on temperament; page not provided) report a significant reduction in negative activation when imepitoin was used alongside a behaviour modification programme. The measured fearfulness and anxiousness were in dogs, as reported by their owners—not negative affective states in the owners themselves. The Methods (Behaviour modification programmes; page not provided) confirm that the programmes were tailored to individual cases. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    These findings support the use of a combined intervention approach and align with previous research and recommendations on the benefits of using pharmaceuticals to support behavioral modification.

    “These findings support the use of a combined intervention approach and aligns with previous research and recommendations on the benefits of using pharmaceuticals to support behavioral modification (25, 26, 43–47).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 7 sources checked
    • cites [25] Weiss, 2015 source
    • cites [26] Landsberg, 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [43] 2024

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [44] Lem, 2020, Behavior modification and pharmacotherapy for separation anxiety in a 2-year-old pointer cross, Can Vet J

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [45] Warnes, 2021, Using psychopharmacology in the treatment of problem behaviours in dogs and cats, Companion Anim source
    • cites [46] McPeake, 2017, The use of imepitoin (Pexion™) on fear- and anxiety-related problems in dogs: a case series, BMC Vet Res source
    • cites [47] Eagan, 2023, Daily gabapentin improved behavior modification progress and decreased stress in shelter cats from hoarding environments in a double-blind randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial, J Am Vet Med Assoc source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A single 15-min petting session has been associated with relaxation-related behaviors (e.g., reduced standing, soliciting contact).

    “a single 15-min petting session has been associated with relaxation-related behaviors (e.g., reduced standing, soliciting contact) (31)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [31] McGowan, 2018, Can you spare 15 min? The measurable positive impact of a 15-min petting session on shelter dog well-being, Appl Anim Behav Sci source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Kennel location was not significantly associated with arousal score.

    “Although kennel location was not significantly associated with arousal score (p = 0.64; Table 4)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Arousal scores were associated with assessment day.

    “Arousal scores were also associated with assessment day (p = 0.0007)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Mild gastrointestinal upset was observed in three dogs receiving pharmaceuticals; signs were short term (1-2 days) and not considered severe or abnormal for the shelter population.

    “Mild gastrointestinal upset was observed in three dogs receiving pharmaceuticals; however, the signs were short term (1–2 days), and this was not considered severe or abnormal for the shelter population in a manner that would warrant removal from the study or medication cessation based on the shelter veterinarian assessment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There were lower arousal scores and less lip licking and jumping during the intervention week compared to day 1 of the baseline week.

    “there were lower arousal scores and less lip licking and jumping during the intervention week compared to day 1 of the baseline week.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Dogs older in age had higher rates of displaying alert behavior.

    “dogs older in age had higher rates of displaying alert behavior (p = 0.001)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Dogs receiving active enrichment had lower arousal scores compared to the baseline group, but differences in individual arousal-related behaviors (e.g., jumping, locomotion) were not observed.

    “While dogs receiving the active enrichment group had lower arousal scores compared to the baseline group, differences in individual arousal-related behaviors (e.g., jumping, locomotion) were not observed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    During the walk there was less lip licking, yawning, and vocalizing, and more body shaking; whereas after enrichment, there was less paw lifting, and more environmental scanning, lip licking, and panting.

    “During the walk there was less lip licking, yawning, and vocalizing, and more body shaking; whereas after enrichment, there was less paw lifting, and more environmental scanning, lip licking, and panting.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Dogs with a longer length of stay were associated with less environmental scanning, lip licking and vocalizations, and more alert behavior.

    “Dogs with a longer length of stay were associated with less environmental scanning, lip licking and vocalizations, and more alert behavior.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Male dogs yawned at lower rates compared to females.

    “male dogs yawned at lower rates (p = 0.008; vs. females).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Within the baseline week, there was some evidence of behavioral activation and arousal, with increased panting and a lower likelihood of facing the back of the kennel compared to day 1.

    “within the baseline week, there was some evidence of behavioral activation and arousal, with increased panting and a lower likelihood of facing the back of the kennel compared to day 1.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    The source population in the participating shelter is composed of generally younger and larger, mixed-breed dogs.

    “The source population in the participating shelter is composed of generally younger and larger, mixed-breed dogs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Providing pharmaceuticals alone, active enrichment, and pharmaceuticals combined with calm enrichment reduced arousal scores.

    “Providing pharmaceuticals alone, active enrichment, and pharmaceuticals combined with calm enrichment reduced arousal scores”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Dogs with a larger weight had higher odds of panting.

    “dogs with a larger weight had higher odds of panting (p = 0.013)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Three treatment groups (calm enrichment, active enrichment, and combination of pharmaceutical and calm enrichment) had the same 15-min in-kennel human-animal interaction session, yet arousal outcomes differed markedly across these groups.

    “Three treatment groups, calm enrichment, active enrichment, and the combination of pharmaceutical and calm enrichment, had the same 15-min in-kennel human-animal interaction session, yet arousal outcomes differed markedly across these groups.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Kennel location was associated with paw lifting.

    “Kennel location was associated with paw lifting (p = 0.023)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Behaviors such as facing the back of the kennel and jumping were reduced prior to treatment provision; however, significant changes in arousal scores were not observed until the intervention week assessments.

    “behaviors such as facing the back of the kennel and jumping were reduced prior to treatment provision; however, significant changes in arousal scores were not observed until the intervention week assessments.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Dogs that received a combination of pharmaceutical and calm enrichment exhibited lower arousal scores and lower rates of vocalizations, lip licking and panting compared to other treatment groups.

    “that received a combination of pharmaceutical and calm enrichment exhibited lower arousal scores and lower rates of vocalizations, lip licking and panting compared to other treatment groups”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Enrichment interventions often include increased human-animal interaction and out-of-kennel exercise.

    “Enrichment interventions often include increased human-animal interaction and out-of-kennel exercise (13, 26).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [13] Reid, 2022 source
    • cites [26] Landsberg, 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Current recommendations for shelter dogs displaying excessive arousal include increased provision of enrichment and the use of short-term pharmaceutical drugs.

    “Current recommendations for shelter dogs displaying excessive arousal include increased provision of enrichment (13) and the use of short-term pharmaceutical drugs (24).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [13] Reid, 2022 source
    • cites [24] Bennett, 2022 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    If adopted, dogs displaying excessive arousal may be at an increased risk of return, as behavioral problems including hyperactivity, stereotypies, and excessive vocalizations are leading reasons for relinquishment.

    “If adopted, dogs displaying excessive arousal may be at an increased risk of return, as previous research identified behavioral problems, including hyperactivity, stereotypies, and excessive vocalizations as leading reasons for relinquishment (21).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [21] Mondelli, 2004, The bond that never developed: adoption and relinquishment of dogs in a rescue shelter, J Appl Anim Welf Sci source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Behaviors indicative of excessive arousal are repetitive and associated with increased activity, restlessness, vocalizations, circling, jumping, and mouthing, observed both inside and outside the kennel.

    “Behaviors indicative of excessive arousal have been described as repetitive and are associated with increased activity, restlessness, vocalizations, circling, jumping, and mouthing, observed both inside and outside of the kennel (13).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] Reid, 2022 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Benefits of enrichment provision for shelter dogs include preventing boredom, improving handling during husbandry tasks, and reducing the risk of behavior concerns developed due to confinement.

    “Benefits of enrichment provision for shelter dogs include preventing boredom, improving handling during husbandry tasks, and reducing the risk of behavior concerns developed due to confinement (25).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [25] Weiss, 2015 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Observer reliability was assessed by comparing observations made by the blinded observer with those made by the investigator (AC), and agreement across all coded behaviors was high (Cohen's κ = 0.91).

    “To assess observer reliability, observations made by the blinded observer were compared with those made by the investigator (AC), who served as the reference observer. Agreement across all coded behaviors was high (Cohen’s κ = 0.91), indicating excellent reliability.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Kennel location was randomized and recorded to assess differences in housing location on dog behavior.

    “Kennel location was randomized and recorded to further assess the differences in housing location on dog behavior.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    An ethogram of arousal- and fear-related, and general in-kennel behavior was used to guide behavioral observations, developed based on prior research.

    “An ethogram of arousal- and fear-related, and general in-kennel behavior was used to guide behavioral observations (Table 2). The ethogram was developed based on prior research on shelter dog in-kennel behavior, including behaviors associated with excessive arousal (e.g., jumping, mouthing, locomotion, vocalizations, alert, environmental scanning) (13, 35), stress (e.g., yawning, panting, reduced”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [13] Reid, 2022 source
    • cites [35] Protopopova, 2018, The effects of exercise and calm interactions on in-kennel behavior of shelter dogs, Behav Process source
    • cites [3] Beerda, 1999, Chronic stress in dogs subjected to social and spatial restriction. I. Behavioral responses, Physiol Behav source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Frequency of discrete behavioral instances was selected as the primary metric because preliminary video review indicated that dogs either did not display a given behavior or displayed it for the full one-minute observation periods.

    “Frequency of discrete behavioral instances, rather than duration, was selected as the primary metric because preliminary video review indicated that dogs either did not display a given behavior or displayed it for the full one-minute observation periods.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Arousal and ease of transition scores were assigned by one investigator from de-identified videos.

    “Arousal and ease of transition scores were assigned by one of the investigators (AC) from de-identified videos.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Trazodone and gabapentin are common short-term pharmaceutical drugs with anxiolytic effects administered to dogs either separately or in combination to reduce arousal associated with negative affect.

    “Trazodone, a serotonin receptor antagonist and reuptake inhibitor, and gabapentin, a calcium channel modulator, are common short-term pharmaceutical drugs with anxiolytic effects administered to dogs either separately or in combination (26, 36) to reduce arousal associated with negative affect.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [26] Landsberg, 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [36] Overall, 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Twelve dogs were excluded from analysis due to procedural changes after pilot testing (5), behavioral concerns (1), medical concerns (3), and adoption (3).

    “Twelve dogs total were excluded due to procedural changes after pilot testing (5), behavioral concerns (i.e., snapping and lunging toward other dogs) observed by shelter employees outside of study procedures (1), medical concerns (e.g., injuries, illness) unrelated to study procedures (3), and adoption (3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    To maintain blinding to treatment allocation, shelter personnel were not instructed regarding which dog should be placed in each kennel.

    “To maintain blinding to treatment allocation, shelter personnel were not instructed regarding which dog should be placed in each kennel.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    A trained individual blinded to the study hypothesis and treatment assignment assessed video recorded behaviors using Observer XT software.

    “A trained individual blinded to the study hypothesis and treatment assignment assessed video recorded behaviors using Observer XT software (Noldus Information Technology Inc., Wageningen, The Netherlands).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    A total of 50 dogs were included in analysis.

    “A total of 50 dogs were included in analysis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    There was potential for the investigator to remember treatment assignment despite de-identification.

    “Despite de-identification, there was the potential for the investigator to remember treatment assignment”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Videos were randomized such that the investigator was blinded to assessment day.

    “however, the videos were randomized such that they were blinded to assessment day.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Dogs displaying similar behavioral presentations may differ substantially in their underlying behavioral needs and therefore their responsiveness to specific interventions.

    “dogs displaying similar behavioral presentations may differ substantially in their underlying behavioral needs and therefore their responsiveness to specific interventions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Excessive arousal may arise from a variety of factors, including anxiety, frustration, motivation to engage with humans and conspecifics, and general high activity levels.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These changes alone are unlikely to fully account for treatment-related differences and therefore additional interventions are still needed to meaningfully reduce excessive arousal in shelter dogs.

    “these changes alone are unlikely to fully account for treatment-related differences and therefore additional interventions are still needed to meaningfully reduce excessive arousal in shelter dogs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Adjusting their environment in this way may have impacted expression of behaviors independent of treatment.

    “Adjusting their environment in this way may have impacted expression of behaviors independent of treatment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    This study was conducted within a single municipal shelter with a housing capacity of 359 dogs at one time, where environmental stressors such as elevated noise, human activity, and conspecific exposure were common.

    “This study was conducted within a single municipal shelter with a housing capacity of 359 dogs at one time, where environmental stressors such as elevated noise, human activity, and conspecific exposure were common.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    These findings align with prior literature exploring the influence of enrichment on in-kennel dog behavior, which reported increased movement upon return to the kennel after 15-min of active play.

    “These findings align with prior literature exploring the influence of enrichment on in-kennel dog behavior, which reported increased movement upon return to the kennel after 15-min of active play (35).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [35] Protopopova, 2018, The effects of exercise and calm interactions on in-kennel behavior of shelter dogs, Behav Process source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Shelter staff retained the responsibility of selecting which dog was moved into each of the five study kennels.

    “shelter staff still retained the responsibility of selecting which dog was moved into each of the five study kennels.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Prior research indicated reductions in vocalizations and panting in shelter dogs following 30 min of positive human-animal interaction (e.g., petting interactions).

    “prior research has indicated reductions in vocalizations and panting in shelter dogs following 30 min of positive human-animal interaction (e.g., petting interactions) (30)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30] Shiverdecker, 2013, Human interaction moderates plasma cortisol and behavioral responses of dogs to shelter housing, Physiol Behav source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Shelter staff may have placed dogs that they perceive as more difficult to handle in the kennel closest to the exit to reduce the time needed to walk them outdoors.

    “shelter staff may have placed dogs that they perceive as more difficult to handle in the kennel closest to the exit to reduce the time needed to walk them outdoors.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Dogs housed near the exit door, despite having only one neighboring study dog, may have been exposed to more stimulation as other dogs needed to be walked past their kennel to enter or leave the room.

    “Additionally, dogs housed near the exit door, despite having only one neighboring study dog, may have been exposed to more stimulation as other dogs needed to be walked past their kennel to enter or leave the room.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These findings may reflect acclimation to the study environment and/or anticipation of enrichment activities as dogs became accustomed to the study routine and associated opportunities for social and physical engagement.

    “These findings may reflect acclimation to the study environment and/or anticipation of enrichment activities as dogs became accustomed to the study routine and associated opportunities for social and physical engagement.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Dogs were enrolled based on the presence of excessive arousal-related behaviors without knowing the underlying motivation contributing to development of those behaviors.

    “dogs were enrolled based on the presence of excessive arousal-related behaviors without knowing the underlying motivation contributing to development of those behaviors.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Staff perception of the dog's temperament, dog demographics, and prior experience with the dog could have influenced kennel placement.

    “staff perception of the dog’s temperament, dog demographics (e.g., size, breed, age), and prior experience with the dog could have influenced kennel placement.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Observed behaviors may have also been influenced by factors outside of the study's control, such as shelter staff handling during daily husbandry tasks and dog behavioral history and prior experiences.

    “Observed behaviors may have also been influenced by factors outside of the study’s control, such as shelter staff handling during daily husbandry tasks (e.g., cleaning) and dog behavioral history and prior experiences.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Dogs exhibiting excessive arousal may alter how they monitor their environment from active (i.e., scanning the environment) to passive vigilance (i.e., alert but remaining stationary) over time.

    “These results may suggest that dogs exhibiting excessive arousal may alter how they monitor their environment from active (i.e., scanning the environment) to passive vigilance (i.e., alert but remaining stationary) over time.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Active play between humans and dogs may act as a modulator of excessive arousal, as heterospecific play in other species, such as rats, has been shown to reduce fear-related behavior.

    “Active play between humans and dogs may act as a modulator of excessive arousal, as heterospecific play in other species, such as rats, has been shown to reduce fear-related behavior (54).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [54] LaFollette, 2018, Practical rat tickling: determining an efficient and effective dosage of heterospecific play, Appl Anim Behav Sci source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Assignment of treatment was randomized to kennel location for each cohort of dogs to reduce the potential for investigator or shelter staff bias.

    “Assignment of treatment was randomized to kennel location for each cohort of dogs to reduce the potential for investigator or shelter staff bias.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
60 of 60

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The behaviors listed in the ethogram validly indicate excessive arousal or fear in shelter dogs.

    “Ethogram used to assess arousal- and fear- related behaviors as well as body position and general behavior during the observation phase”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The 5-point arousal score validly measures arousal in shelter dogs.

    “Dogs were subjectively scored from video using the same arousal scores (5-point scale ranging from 0 to 4; Table 1) during the eligibility assessments.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Recommendations to increase provision of enrichment and administer pharmaceuticals, including the baseline level of care of two walks a day, may exceed what many shelters are able to provide.

    “Recommendations to increase provision of enrichment and administer pharmaceuticals, including the baseline level of care of two walks a day, may exceed what many shelters are able to provide.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The foods provided (peanut butter, spray cheese, or wet food) constitute a form of nutritional enrichment.

    “the foods provided constitute a form of nutritional enrichment”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Excessive arousal may arise from a variety of factors, including anxiety, frustration, motivation to engage with humans and conspecifics, and general high activity levels.

    “Excessive arousal may arise from a variety of factors, including anxiety, frustration, motivation to engage with humans and conspecifics, and general high activity levels.”
5 of 5

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Conflicting p-values for assessment-day effect on jumping

    Minor

    The results text reports p = 0.0003 for the assessment-day effect on jumping, but Table 5 reports p = 0.0012. The table assigns p = 0.0003 to the treatment-by-phase interaction.

  • Grooming percentage is incorrect

    Minor

    One of 11 grooming instances is approximately 9.1%, not 1%.

    Reported 1 · recomputed 9.090909

  • Conflicting p-values for the treatment-by-phase interaction

    Minor

    The results text reports p = 0.0007 for the arousal-score interaction, while Table 4 reports p = 0.0001 for the same interaction.

  • Significant day effects have confidence intervals crossing zero

    Minor

    Table 4 reports significant decreases in arousal score on days 10 and 14, but both printed 95% confidence intervals include zero. Those intervals do not support the stated significant differences from day 1.

  • Conflicting p-values for observation-phase effect on body shaking

    Minor

    The behavioral-results text gives p = 0.02 for the observation-phase effect on body shaking, whereas Table 5 gives p < 0.001. The table assigns p = 0.020 to the treatment effect instead.

5 of 5

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 7

  1. 2026, 2025 annual analysis
  2. Landsberg, 2012, Behavior Problems of the Dog and Cat
  3. Overall, 2013, Manual of Clinical Behavioral Medicine for Dogs and Cats
  4. 2024, Position Statement on Behavioral Pharmacology
  5. Lem, 2020, Behavior modification and pharmacotherapy for separation anxiety in a 2-year-old pointer cross, Can Vet J, 43, 220
  6. Weiss, 2007, Meet your Match®: Canine-Ality™ and Puppy-Ality™ Manual and Training Guide
  7. Miller, 2022, Animal Behavior for Shelter Veterinarians and Staff, 115

Related

Authors
Cisneros, A., O’Hanley, K., Moody, C. M., & Stellato, A. C.
Affiliations
  • Texas Tech University (US)
  • University of California, Davis (US)
ORCID
Venue
Frontiers in Veterinary Science
Publisher
Frontiers Media SA
Published
2026-09-03
Volume
13
Pages
1931203-1931203
ISSN
2297-1769 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3389/fvets.2026.1931203
PMC
PMC13581901
OpenAlex
W7207829015
Semantic Scholar
ac4a03f16ff61171484a5dccfbd68b4d9e0f844b
Cited by
0
References
47
FWCI
0.00
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Frontiers in Veterinary Science (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Human-Animal Interaction Studies
  • Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Veterinary Pharmacology and Anesthesia
Keywords
shelter dogs, canine behavioral problems, animal enrichment, gabapentin, trazodone, human-animal interaction, canine anxiety, lip licking, panting, vocalizations, jumping, dog adoption

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-11.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-11.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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