Hydrogen-Based Energy Systems: Current Technology Development Status, Opportunities and Challenges
Open accessAbstract
The use of hydrogen as an energy carrier within the scope of the decarbonisation of the world’s energy production and utilisation is seen by many as an integral part of this endeavour. However, the discussion around hydrogen technologies often lacks some perspective on the currently available technologies, their Technology Readiness Level (TRL), scope of application, and important performance parameters, such as energy density or conversion efficiency. This makes it difficult for the policy makers and investors to evaluate the technologies that are most promising. The present study aims to provide help in this respect by assessing the available technologies in which hydrogen is used as an energy carrier, including its main challenges, needs and opportunities in a scenario in which fossil fuels still dominate global energy sources but in which renewables are expected to assume a progressively vital role in the future. The production of green hydrogen using water electrolysis technologies is described in detail. Various methods of hydrogen storage are referred, including underground storage, physical storage, and material-based storage. Hydrogen transportation technologies are examined, taking into account different storage methods, volume requirements, and transportation distances. Lastly, an assessment of well-known technologies for harnessing energy from hydrogen is undertaken, including gas turbines, reciprocating internal combustion engines, and fuel cells. It seems that the many of the technologies assessed have already achieved a satisfactory degree of development, such as several solutions for high-pressure hydrogen storage, while others still require some maturation, such as the still limited life and/or excessive cost of the various fuel cell technologies, or the suitable operation of gas turbines and reciprocating internal combustion engines operating with hydrogen. Costs below 200 USD/kWproduced, lives above 50 kh, and conversion efficiencies approaching 80% are being aimed at green hydrogen production or electricity production from hydrogen fuel cells. Nonetheless, notable advances have been achieved in these technologies in recent years. For instance, electrolysis with solid oxide cells may now sometimes reach up to 85% efficiency although with a life still in the range of 20 kh. Conversely, proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) working as electrolysers are able to sometimes achieve a life in the range of 80 kh with efficiencies up to 68%. Regarding electricity production from hydrogen, the maximum efficiencies are slightly lower (72% and 55%, respectively). The combination of the energy losses due to hydrogen production, compression, storage and electricity production yields overall efficiencies that could be as low as 25%, although smart applications, such as those that can use available process or waste heat, could substantially improve the overall energy efficiency figures. Despite the challenges, the foreseeable future seems to hold significant potential for hydrogen as a clean energy carrier, as the demand for hydrogen continues to grow, particularly in transportation, building heating, and power generation, new business prospects emerge. However, this should be done with careful regard to the fact that many of these technologies still need to increase their technological readiness level before they become viable options. For this, an emphasis needs to be put on research, innovation, and collaboration among industry, academia, and policymakers to unlock the full potential of hydrogen as an energy vector in the sustainable economy.
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Liquid ecofuels exhibit substantially higher gravimetric and volumetric energy densities than current battery technologies, although typically lower than conventional fossil fuels like gasoline or diesel.
“When comparing common energy carriers, liquid ecofuels exhibit substantially higher gravimetric and volumetric energy densities than current battery technologies, although typically lower than conventional fossil fuels like gasoline or diesel [36,37].”
From Biofuels, E-Fuels, and Waste-Derived Fuels: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [37]
Section 6.4.3 (page unavailable) says liquid methanol has a lower volumetric energy density than gasoline or diesel, and notes that renewable methanol can be a biofuel. It does not establish the claim for liquid ecofuels generally, compare their energy densities with batteries, or address their gravimetric density relative to gasoline or diesel. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredCurrent battery technology faces limitations in energy density that restrict its applicability in long-distance aviation and maritime transport.
“Current battery technology, while advancing, faces limitations in energy density, restricting its applicability in long-distance aviation and maritime transport, where gravimetric and volumetric energy densities are critical [36,37].”
From Biofuels, E-Fuels, and Waste-Derived Fuels: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [37]
Section 4.1 (page unavailable) says onboard energy storage needs high gravimetric and volumetric energy densities to provide reasonable travel distance, while noting that volumetric density is less important for ships. Section 4.3.1 (page unavailable) says hydrogen fuel systems are lighter than battery systems and offer greater vehicle range. The paper does not establish that battery energy density specifically restricts long-distance aviation or maritime transport. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredHydrogen, due to low volumetric energy density, requires specialized high-pressure or cryogenic storage and transport, and a completely new refueling network for widespread transport use.
“Hydrogen, due to its low volumetric energy density, requires specialized high-pressure or cryogenic storage and transport, and a completely new refueling network for widespread use in transport [37,55].”
From Biofuels, E-Fuels, and Waste-Derived Fuels: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [37]
Section 4.3 (page unavailable) links hydrogen’s low volumetric energy density to the need for high-pressure or low-temperature storage, and §5.1 describes delivery as compressed gas or liquid. Section 7 calls for hydrogen refuelling infrastructure for transport, but does not establish that a completely new network is required; that absolute wording goes beyond the source. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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- Authors
- Rolo, I., Costa, V. A. F., & Brito, F. P.
- Affiliations
- University of Aveiro (PT)
- University of Minho (PT)
- Corresponding author
- Brito, Francisco P.
- Venue
- Energies
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2023-12-28
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 180
- ISSN
- 1996-1073 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4390347341
- Cited by
- 258
- References
- 121
- Citations by year
- 2026: 117 · 2025: 105 · 2024: 36
- FWCI
- 11.88
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Energies (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (SFRH/BD/145124/2019, UIDB/00481/2020, UIDB/04077/2020, UIDP/00481/2020-FCT, CENTRO-01-0145-FEDER-022083, Norte2020)
- Centro Portugal Regional Operational Programme (Centro2020) (SFRH/BD/145124/2019, UIDB/00481/2020, UIDB/04077/2020, UIDP/00481/2020-FCT, CENTRO-01-0145-FEDER-022083, Norte2020)
- PORTUGAL 2020 Partnership Agreement, through the European Regional Development Fund (SFRH/BD/145124/2019, UIDB/00481/2020, UIDB/04077/2020, UIDP/00481/2020-FCT, CENTRO-01-0145-FEDER-022083, Norte2020)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Energy › Energy Engineering and Power Technology › Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Materials Chemistry › Hydrogen Storage and Materials
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Advanced Power Generation Technologies
- Keywords
- hydrogen energy carriers, green hydrogen, water electrolysis, solid oxide electrolysis cells, proton exchange membrane fuel cells, hydrogen storage, high-pressure hydrogen storage, underground hydrogen storage, hydrogen transport, gas turbines, reciprocating internal combustion engines, energy efficiency, decarbonization, technology readiness level, hydrogen production cost, renewable energy integration, waste heat recovery
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