Impacts of COVID-19 on Food Choices and Eating Behavior among New Zealand University Students

“These changes include increases in snacking behaviors and comfort eating [20,21], increased adherence to a healthy diet [22], increased consumption of high energy density foods [23–25], increased home cooking [22,26], and increased alcohol consumption [27].”

“…to report on changes in food choices and eating behavior since before the pandemic, using food categories such as sweet and salty snack foods, fast food, meal preparation kits, baking, and meals prepared from scratch based on previous studies looking at changes in purchasing patterns [21,24,45].”

“However, this finding is consistent with more recent evaluations of smell and taste loss in COVID-19 patients [55,56], with evidence suggesting that the occurrence of smell and taste changes has decreased in more recent variants of COVID-19 [57].”

“These changes include increases in snacking behaviors and comfort eating [20,21], increased adherence to a healthy diet [22], increased consumption of high energy density foods [23–25], increased home cooking [22,26], and increased alcohol consumption [27].”

“These changes include increases in snacking behaviors and comfort eating [20,21], increased adherence to a healthy diet [22], increased consumption of high energy density foods [23–25], increased home cooking [22,26], and increased alcohol consumption [27].”

“Due to public health measures, including strict national and regional lockdowns and travel restrictions, New Zealand was able to eliminate the spread of COVID-19 in the community in 2020 and had relatively low exposure to COVID-19 up until late 2021 [34,35].”

“Consistent with other studies of changes in consumption patterns in university students, we found a self-reported increase in alcohol consumption [62,63].”

“Changes in the perception of sweet foods may result in increases in salty or fatty foods, with participants switching to salty or fatty snacks due to less enjoyment of sweet foods due to the dulled taste [7,58].”

“A recent meta-analysis reported persistent self-reported smell and taste loss in 5.6% and 4.4% of patients, respectively [18].”

“This is consistent with findings related to anosmia; for example, patients with clinical alteration in smell consistently showed a shift in preference toward savory and salty foods, and many reported reduced consumption of sweet foods and drinks [44].”

“For example, only 11% of Australian COVID-19 patients reported sensory changes compared to 55% of European COVID-19 patients [13].”

“During the acute phase of the pandemic, consumption of fast foods was reduced [60,61], but students in the present study reported that consumption of fast foods was more or about the same as pre-pandemic, which may be a result of the increased need for socialization after restrictions were removed.”

“Research has suggested that many individuals who are infected with SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for the COVID-19 global pandemic, experience sensory symptoms, such as loss or distortion of smell or taste abilities [1–6].”

“Meta-analyses have found that sensory changes were highly prevalent in 2020 and 2021, with as many as 40–60% of people reporting changes in smell or taste [1,12] and 20% of patients reporting the onset of smell and taste changes without other symptoms [1].”

“Due to public health measures, including strict national and regional lockdowns and travel restrictions, New Zealand was able to eliminate the spread of COVID-19 in the community in 2020 and had relatively low exposure to COVID-19 up until late 2021 [34,35].”

“The sample size calculation was based on changes in energy intake in university students before and during the COVID-19 pandemic reported in previous studies [24,39,40].”

“Meta-analyses have found that sensory changes were highly prevalent in 2020 and 2021, with as many as 40–60% of people reporting changes in smell or taste [1,12] and 20% of patients reporting the onset of smell and taste changes without other symptoms [1].”

“Given the strict public health measures employed in New Zealand, previous studies of the effect of COVID-19 on dietary patterns in New Zealand have focused on the lockdown periods when retail stores were limited in their operation [39,40].”

“Long-term dysfunction of taste and smell can have a significant impact on quality of life, including reduced appetite and enjoyment of food, concern about body odors, and risk of injury [19].”

“Studies have suggested that deficiencies in micronutrients can impair immune function and, therefore, leave patients more susceptible to COVID-19 and increase the severity of symptoms and disease progression [53].”

“However, this finding is consistent with more recent evaluations of smell and taste loss in COVID-19 patients [55,56], with evidence suggesting that the occurrence of smell and taste changes has decreased in more recent variants of COVID-19 [57].”

“States of America reported increases in daily sodium intake from 1999 to 2016 [49].”

“Consistent with other studies of changes in consumption patterns in university students, we found a self-reported increase in alcohol consumption [62,63].”

“These changes include increases in snacking behaviors and comfort eating [20,21], increased adherence to a healthy diet [22], increased consumption of high energy density foods [23–25], increased home cooking [22,26], and increased alcohol consumption [27].”

“…studies in the last decade. significant attempted of confirm A number of studies have found an association between micronutrients and trace found that care units COVID-19 patients in Switzerland found the majority of patients had micronutrient deficiencies, of zinc, vitamin A, and folic acids [52].”

“Although most patients recover their sense of smell and taste within 3 months of infection [16], studies have reported the long-term impact of COVID-19 on smell and taste for some patients even after they have recovered from COVID-19.”

“For example, a study recruiting patients with symptoms of smell distortion found that 83% had long-term distortion of smell related to COVID-19 [17].”

“Deficiencies in micronutrients may also have an impact on appetite regulation [54] and, therefore, may relate to observed differences in macronutrient intake, although we did not observe any differences in overall intake.”

“Similar to previous studies, self-reported changes in eating and purchasing behaviors were variable across participants [51].”

“For example, a study involving Danish adults in the post-acute phase of COVID-19 found that participants reported reducing the size of the meals post-infection and reducing consumption of animal products compared to before COVID-19 infection [29].”

“Food records, as self-report measures, are subject to biases in underreporting [66], while lab-based measures like the ad libitum buffet are free of such biases but less naturalistic.”

“Although this finding is self-reported, it is consistent with clinical testing of taste loss in COVID-19 patients compared to controls, which showed that sweet and bitter taste recognition was the most impaired in COVID-19 patients [3].”

“…observed in large observation studies in the last decade. intake to increased production and consumption processed foods, in particular snacks [50], although more research is warranted to For example, a population survey in the United States of America reported significant increases in daily…”

“Changes in the perception of sweet foods may result in increases in salty or fatty foods, with participants switching to salty or fatty snacks due to less enjoyment of sweet foods due to the dulled taste [7,58].”

“…were unable to control for other changes that have occurred over the same time period, such as inflation and the increasing cost of food, changes in product formulation due to the increasing adoption of health star ratings [64], and the increasing adoption of plant-based and flexitarian diets [65].”

“Given the strict public health measures employed in New Zealand, previous studies of the effect of COVID-19 on dietary patterns in New Zealand have focused on the lockdown periods when retail stores were limited in their operation [39,40].”

“During the acute phase of the pandemic, consumption of fast foods was reduced [60,61], but students in the present study reported that consumption of fast foods was more or about the same as pre-pandemic, which may be a result of the increased need for socialization after restrictions were removed.”

“Given that sensory perception plays a significant role in influencing food preference and selection, sensory alterations can directly impact individual energy and macronutrient intake, as well as diet quality [7–10].”

“A systematic review of dietary behaviors in people who experienced chemosensory dysfunction following COVID-19 found only five quantitative studies meeting the criteria [28].”

“However, this finding is consistent with more recent evaluations of smell and taste loss in COVID-19 patients [55,56], with evidence suggesting that the occurrence of smell and taste changes has decreased in more recent variants of COVID-19 [57].”

“This understanding is crucial as consumers become more selective in food choices and increasingly prioritize personal and family health requirements [4,61,62].”

“During the COVID-19 pandemic, eating at home or alone could also have influenced eating patterns [63, 64] and potentially lead to maladaptive eating behaviors [65].”

“In this research topic, existing literature primarily used self-designed, close-end questionnaires to collect cross-sectional data on food choices and dietary behavior determinants (18, 71–73).”

“However, it is not clear whether the dietary choices of those who have had a COVID-19 infection differ significantly from the general population [26].”

“…with a marked worsening in dietary habits (i.e., increases in snacking behaviors, comfort eating and consumption of high energy density foods) [54–57] and an increase in sedentary time, primarily due to the rise in screen time [58, 59], which predisposes individuals to weight gain and an…”