Management of Dyspepsia and Gastroparesis in Patients with Diabetes. A Clinical Point of View in the Year 2021
Open accessAbstract
Diabetes mellitus is a widespread disease, and represents an important public health burden worldwide. Together with cardiovascular, renal and neurological complications, many patients with diabetes present with gastrointestinal symptoms, which configure the so-called diabetic enteropathy. In this review, we will focus on upper gastrointestinal symptoms in patients with diabetes, with particular attention to dyspepsia and diabetic gastroparesis (DG). These two clinical entities share similar pathogenetic mechanisms, which include autonomic neuropathy, alterations in enteric nervous system and histological abnormalities, such as interstitial cells of Cajal depletion. Moreover, the differential diagnosis may be challenging because of overlapping clinical features. Delayed gastric emptying should be documented to differentiate between DG and dyspepsia and it can be assessed through radioactive or non-radioactive methods. The clinical management of dyspepsia includes a wide range of different approaches, above all Helicobacter pylori test and treat. As regards DG treatment, a central role is played by dietary modification and glucose control and the first-line pharmacological therapy is represented by the use of prokinetics. A minority of patients with DG refractory to medical treatment may require more invasive therapeutic approaches, including supplemental nutrition, gastric electric stimulation, pyloromyotomy and gastrectomy.
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Prokinetics, such as metoclopramide and erythromycin, modify emptying times and may require earlier or split bolus dosing to avoid early hypoglycemia.
“Prokinetics, such as metoclopramide and erythromycin, modifies emptying times and may require earlier or split bolus dosing to avoid early hypoglycemia [2, 3, 14, 119, 120]”
From Diabetic gastroparesis: pathophysiology and impact on insulin timing choices (2026) · cites this paper as [119]
Section 6 (page unavailable) says prokinetics improve gastric motility and that metoclopramide improves gastric emptying; Section 7 identifies metoclopramide and erythromycin as prokinetic treatments. Neither section recommends earlier or split insulin boluses or links those dosing changes to preventing early hypoglycemia. (LLM, conf=0.88)
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“28 In the present study, a higher prevalence of FD symptoms was present in diabetics compared to nondiabetics.”
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“Some underlying mechanisms may contribute to the abnormal pharmacokinetics of clopidogrel in patients with diabetes, such as decreased gastrointestinal drug absorption, increased prodrug and AM hydrolysis [8, 27].”
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“should be explored in future analyses [37].”
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“Nevertheless, despite the intense efforts made from basic research [14] to the clinical setting [15], diabetic gastroparesis remains a challenge for clinicians.”
BackgroundSelf-citationDiabetic gastroparesis: a disease for which long-term therapeutic benefits are difficult to obtain
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ResultRisk factors of functional dyspepsia, gastrointestinal reflux disease and non-erosive reflux disease
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“Age, BMI, gender, tobacco, anxiety, depression, dietary habits and food frequencies are important risk factors of GERD and FD. Weight control, balanced diet, light exercise, quitting smoking, treating anxiety and depression and improving dietary habits can aid treatment of upper GI disorders.”
InfluentialDiabetic gastroparesis: pathophysiology and impact on insulin timing choices
Galeano, F., Tumminia, A., Oteri, V., Le Moli, R., Piticchio, T., Scilletta, S., Di Marco, M., Di Pino, A., & Frasca, F. (2026) · Endocrine · doi:10.1007/s12020-026-04693-6
“Prokinetics, such as metoclopramide and erythromycin, modifies emptying times and may require earlier or split bolus dosing to avoid early hypoglycemia [2, 3, 14, 119, 120 ], although their efficacy is often limited and long-term use requires careful monitorg for adverse effects [2, 14, 120].”
Bando, H., Kato, Y., Kato, Y., Yamashita, H., Yada, S., & OGURA, K. (2021) · Diabetes Research - Open Journal · doi:10.17140/droj-7-150
Emerging trends in disturbed function of the pancreas and dyspepsia: an Indian perspective
Rai, R. R., & Bose, P. P. (2024) · International Journal of Advances in Medicine · doi:10.18203/2349-3933.ijam20240682
Huang, H.-J., Livneh, H., Yen, C.-T., Lu, M., Chen, W. J., & Tsai, T. (2024) · Pharmaceuticals · doi:10.3390/ph17091191
“In addition, the reason that BXXXT and PWS were commonly prescribed among subjects included in this study is because diabetic patients often suffer from mild to severe gastrointestinal symptoms [30].”
BackgroundPrasad, M., Pratap, N., Zargar, S. A., Shankar, R. B., Jalihal, U., & Venugopal, R. V. (2025) · Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.4103/ijem.ijem_391_24
“It is known that higher glycemic levels cause delayed gastric emptying; hence, glycemic control is essential for the management of DGP. [10] Effective glycemic management has the potential to enhance antral contractility, rectify gastric dysrhythmias, and expedite the emptying process.”
Giha, H. A., Sater, M. S., & Qarni, A. A. A. (2025) · Minerva Endocrinology · doi:10.23736/s2724-6507.25.04230-7
Saha, B., Behera, S. K., Dash, N., Rao, S., & Mittal, S. (2025) · International Journal of Advances in Medicine · doi:10.18203/2349-3933.ijam20253349
Gal, O., Nicola, D., Mari, A., Taher, R., Fanadka, N., Bsoul, A. M., Mahamid, A., Hazzan, R., & Baker, F. A. (2025) · Clinics and Practice · doi:10.3390/clinpract16010007
Domperidone vs Metoclopramide: Comparative Evaluation of Efficacy in Treating Diabetic Gastroparesis
Saeed, A., Manzar, A., Yousaf, R., Farooq, M. J., Khurram, M., & Bashir, Z. (2026) · Pakistan Journal of Health Sciences · doi:10.54393/pjhs.v7i1.3096
Muceniece, K. R., Ražuka‐Ebela, D., Grantiņa, L., Dosone, D., Ebela, I., Tolmanis, I., & Leja, M. (2026) · Proceedings of the Latvian Academy of Sciences Section B Natural Exact and Applied Sciences · doi:10.2478/prolas-2026-0002
“Clinical reviews have hypothesised that PDS, due to its basis in motility alterations, is the subtype most likely to overlap with GP (Bonetto et al ., 2021).”
Zhou, Z., Zhou, S., Xu, W., Liu, L., Zhu, W., Chen, H., Zhou, J., & Zhang, Z. (2026) · Neuromodulation Technology at the Neural Interface · doi:10.1016/j.neurom.2026.07.652
- Authors
- Bonetto, S., Gruden, G., Beccuti, G., Ferro, A., Saracco, G. M., & Pellicano, R.
- Affiliations
- Fondazione Ricerca Molinette (IT)
- University of Turin (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Bonetto, Silvia
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Clinical Medicine
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2021-03-23
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1313
- ISSN
- 2077-0383 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC8004823
- OpenAlex
- W3137603161
- Cited by
- 26
- References
- 68
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 1
- FWCI
- 0.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Clinical Medicine (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Institutional Research Information System University of Turin (University of Turin) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Gastroenterology › Gastrointestinal motility and disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Gastroenterology › Gastrointestinal Bleeding Diagnosis and Treatment
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes Management and Research
- Keywords
- diabetic gastroparesis, dyspepsia, diabetes mellitus, diabetic enteropathy, autonomic neuropathy, delayed gastric emptying, interstitial cells of Cajal, prokinetic agents, Helicobacter pylori, dietary change, glycemic control, gastric electrical stimulation, pyloromyotomy, gastrectomy, enteral nutrition
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