Secure Image Encryption Using Chaotic, Hybrid Chaotic and Block Cipher Approach
Open accessAbstract
Secure image transmission is one of the most challenging problems in the age of communication technology. Millions of people use and transfer images for either personal or commercial purposes over the internet. One way of achieving secure image transmission over the network is encryption techniques that convert the original image into a non-understandable or scrambled form, called a cipher image, so that even if the attacker gets access to the cipher they would not be able to retrieve the original image. In this study, chaos-based image encryption and block cipher techniques are implemented and analyzed for image encryption. Arnold cat map in combination with a logistic map are used as native chaotic and hybrid chaotic approaches respectively whereas advanced encryption standard (AES) is used as a block cipher approach. The chaotic and AES methods are applied to encrypt images and are subjected to measures of different performance parameters such as peak signal to noise ratio (PSNR), number of pixels change rate (NPCR), unified average changing intensity (UACI), and histogram and computation time analysis to measure the strength of each algorithm. The results show that the hybrid chaotic map has better NPCR and UACI values which makes it more robust to differential attacks or chosen plain text attacks. The Arnold cat map is computationally efficient in comparison to the other two approaches. However, AES has a lower PSNR value (7.53 to 11.93) and has more variation between histograms of original and cipher images, thereby indicating that it is more resistant to statistical attacks than the other two approaches.
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This paper implements and compares Arnold cat map, a hybrid Arnold cat + logistic map, and AES block cipher for image encryption. It finds the hybrid chaotic map strongest against differential attacks, Arnold cat map fastest, and AES best at preserving image properties and histogram differences.
Key findings
- The hybrid chaotic map had the highest NPCR for all four images and higher UACI than the other methods for all images except “Baboon.jpg”; its NPCR and UACI ranges were 95–99 and 28–34, respectively.
- AES had lower PSNR values, reported as 7.53 to 11.93 in the abstract and 7.21 (D2.jpg) to 11.93 (Baboon.jpg) in the results, and showed more variation between original and cipher-image histograms, indicating greater resistance to statistical attacks.
- The Arnold cat map was computationally efficient: for “Boobon.jpg,” AES took 2485 ms encryption and 2037 ms decryption, while Arnold cat map took 2235 ms and 1580 ms; overall, the native Arnold cat map had the lowest computational cost.
- Some NPCR and UACI values for image sets were significantly lower than the standard range, which the paper says determined failure of the differential analysis test for that image.
Methods
- Three encryption approaches were implemented: Arnold cat map, hybrid chaotic map combining Arnold cat map with logistic map, and AES block cipher using 128-bit block size and 128-bit key with 10 rounds.
- Test images came from the SIPI image database, the DICOM image database, and user-captured images, with different sizes and dimensions summarized in Table 1.
- Performance was analyzed using visual assessment via PSNR, differential analysis via NPCR and UACI, histogram-based statistical analysis, and encryption/decryption computation time.
Limitations
- Stated: future work should consider higher-dimensional 3D and 4D chaotic maps, cryptanalysis of the analyzed algorithms, and mechanisms to preserve image properties lost after decryption by chaotic and hybrid chaotic methods.
- Evident: the paper reports that some NPCR and UACI values fell significantly below the standard range, causing differential analysis test failure for that image.
- Evident: the AES PSNR range differs between the abstract (7.53 to 11.93) and the results section (7.21 to 11.93).
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Statistics
Claims the paper makes
1 of 8 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Findingown data
The hybrid chaotic map has higher UACI values than the Arnold cat map and AES for all tested images except Baboon.jpg.
“Comparing the UACI values of the three algorithms, the hybrid chaotic map has higher UACI values than the other two algorithms (Arnold cat map and AES) for all images except the “Baboon.jpg” image.”
- Also stated in: § 5. Result and Discussion · plain
“The hybrid chaotic map has a greater value of NPCR and UACI in the range of 95–99 and 28–34, respectively, for a different set of the images, which is a significantly greater value compared to the chaotic map and AES.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § 5. Result and Discussion · plain
- Findingown data
The hybrid chaotic map has higher NPCR values than the Arnold cat map and AES across the tested images.
“While looking at Table 3, it is found that the hybrid chaotic map poses the highest NPCR value for all four images, followed by the Arnold cat map. The AES has the lowest NPCR value.”
- Also stated in: § 5. Result and Discussion · plain
“The hybrid chaotic map has a greater value of NPCR and UACI in the range of 95–99 and 28–34, respectively, for a different set of the images, which is a significantly greater value compared to the chaotic map and AES.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § 5. Result and Discussion · plain
- Findingown data
AES PSNR values range from 7.53 to 11.93.
“However, AES has a lower PSNR value (7.53 to 11.93) and has more variation between histograms of original and cipher images, thereby indicating that it is more resistant to statistical attacks than the other two approaches.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The chaotic map and the hybrid chaotic map have similar histograms for original and encrypted images.
“Chaotic and hybrid chaotic resemble similar histograms for original and encrypted images (Ref to Figure 5).”
- Also stated in: § 5. Result and Discussion · plain
“The chaotic map and hybrid chaotic map had similar histograms for encrypted and decrypted images compared to AES, which shows that there are fewer variations and more chances to predict the image properties by intruders.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § 5. Result and Discussion · plain
- Findingown data
The chaotic map and the hybrid chaotic map have PSNR values ranging from 10 upwards.
“However, the chaotic map and the hybrid chaotic map have a significantly higher PSNR value which ranges from 10 upwards; this value of PSNR results in a change to the visual properties of the image.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Findingown data
The hybrid chaotic map has UACI values ranging from 28 to 34 across the tested images.
“The hybrid chaotic map has a greater value of NPCR and UACI in the range of 95–99 and 28–34, respectively, for a different set of the images, which is a significantly greater value compared to the chaotic map and AES.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
AES PSNR values range from 7.21 to 11.93 across the tested images.
“The PSNR value of AES is in the range of 7.21 (for D2.jpg) to 11.93 (for Baboon.jpg), representing a good value which confirms that the original image and decrypted image are similar without losing much of their image properties.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
AES has lower PSNR values than the Arnold cat map and the hybrid chaotic map.
“However, AES has a lower PSNR value (7.53 to 11.93) and has more variation between histograms of original and cipher images, thereby indicating that it is more resistant to statistical attacks than the other two approaches.”
- Also stated in: § 5. Result and Discussion · plain
“The PSNR value of AES is in the range of 7.21 (for D2.jpg) to 11.93 (for Baboon.jpg), representing a good value which confirms that the original image and decrypted image are similar without losing much of their image properties.”
- Also stated in: § 5. Result and Discussion · plain
“However, the chaotic map and the hybrid chaotic map have a significantly higher PSNR value which ranges from 10 upwards; this value of PSNR results in a change to the visual properties of the image.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § 5. Result and Discussion · plain
- Findingown data
Some NPCR and UACI values for the image sets are significantly lower than the standard range, indicating failure of the differential analysis test for that image.
“It is also noticed that some of the values for NPCR and UACI for the image sets are significantly lower than the standard range of values, which determined the failure of the differential analysis test for that image (Ref. to Table 3).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: There is a standard range of NPCR and UACI values for passing the differential analysis test.
- Findingown data
AES has more variation between histograms of original and cipher images than the Arnold cat map and the hybrid chaotic map.
“However, AES has a lower PSNR value (7.53 to 11.93) and has more variation between histograms of original and cipher images, thereby indicating that it is more resistant to statistical attacks than the other two approaches.”
- Also stated in: § 4.4. Statistical Analysis · plain
“AES provides better statistical analysis than the Arnold cat map and the hybrid chaotic cat map.”
- Also stated in: § 5. Result and Discussion · plain
“AES resembles quality performance in the histogram analysis of the image as the histograms of the cipher and original image show more variation which ultimately lessens the chances of providing a clue to the intruders and prevents them from attacking.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § 4.4. Statistical Analysis · plain
- Findingown data
AES is computationally inefficient.
“The results showed that AES is computationally inefficient but can preserve the image properties after encryption as it has a lower PSNR value and high histogram differences.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
AES is more resistant to statistical attacks than the Arnold cat map and the hybrid chaotic map.
“However, AES has a lower PSNR value (7.53 to 11.93) and has more variation between histograms of original and cipher images, thereby indicating that it is more resistant to statistical attacks than the other two approaches.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The hybrid chaotic method preserves fewer image properties.
“The hybrid chaotic method has high NPCR and UACI values which show its strength in resisting differential attacks, although it seems to preserve fewer image properties.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
The hybrid chaotic map has better security measurement parameters than the standalone chaos-based image encryption system.
“The hybrid chaotic map seems to have better security measurement parameters than the standalone chaos-based image encryption system.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [20] Sheela, 2018, Image encryption based on modified Henon map using hybrid chaotic shift transform, Multimed. Tools Appl. source
- cites [21] Abdullah, H.N., and Abdullah, H.A. (2017, January 26–27). Image encryption using hybrid chaotic map. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Current Research in Computer Science and Information Technology (ICCIT), Dhaka, Bangladesh. source
- Interpretationown data
The hybrid chaotic map is more robust to differential attacks or chosen plain text attacks than the Arnold cat map and AES.
“The results show that the hybrid chaotic map has better NPCR and UACI values which makes it more robust to differential attacks or chosen plain text attacks.”
- Also stated in: § 5. Result and Discussion · boosted
“This result shows that the hybrid chaotic map stands well in the differential analysis compared to the other two approaches in protecting the image from intruders by creating more chaos in the image pixel properties.”
- Also stated in: § 5. Result and Discussion · plain
“In summary, it can be seen from the above analysis that the hybrid chaotic map is better at resisting differential attacks.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § 5. Result and Discussion · boosted
- Interpretationown data
AES maintains good image quality after decryption compared to the chaotic map and the hybrid chaotic map.
“The result shows that AES has maintained a good image quality after decrypting the image compared to the chaotic cat map and hybrid chaotic map as this is supported by the lower PSNR value for AES.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The logistic map can enhance the security of the chaos system over the Arnold cat map transformation.
“The logistic map can be used to enhance the security of the chaos system over the Arnold cat map transformation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The Arnold cat map encryption algorithm has periodicity, which reduces its encryption security.
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 1
- May combine two claims. 9
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationTest images from the SIPI and DICOM databases are standard images chosen by most existing works to evaluate image encryption algorithms.
“Test images were taken from a widely used image repository called the “SIPI image database” [32], and the “DICOM (Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine) image database” [33], because these are the standard image chosen by most of the existing works [21,31] to evaluate the strength of image encryption algorithms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked- cites [21] Abdullah, H.N., and Abdullah, H.A. (2017, January 26–27). Image encryption using hybrid chaotic map. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Current Research in Computer Science and Information Technology (ICCIT), Dhaka, Bangladesh. source
- cites [31] Abbas, 2016, Image encryption based on independent component analysis and arnold’s cat map, Egypt. Inform. J. source
The Results and discussions section describes testing the encryption method on images of several sizes, but does not identify SIPI or DICOM as their sources. Searches for “SIPI,” “DICOM,” and the assertion that most existing works choose these as standard test images found no passage addressing that assertion. (LLM, conf=0.74)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe Arnold cat map has lower encryption and decryption time, and is computationally more efficient, than AES and the hybrid chaotic map across the tested images.
“The Arnold cat map is computationally efficient in comparison to the other two approaches.”
- Also stated in: § 4.3. Computational Speed Analysis · plain
“The overall results on computational time for all images show that the native Arnold cat map has a lower computational cost compared to the other two algorithms: AES and hybrid chaotic cat map (Ref to Table 4).”
- Also stated in: § 5. Result and Discussion · plain
“The Arnold cat map proved to be a computationally efficient algorithm in terms of encryption and decryption.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § 4.3. Computational Speed Analysis · plain
The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataThe hybrid chaotic map has NPCR values ranging from 95 to 99 across the tested images.
“The hybrid chaotic map has a greater value of NPCR and UACI in the range of 95–99 and 28–34, respectively, for a different set of the images, which is a significantly greater value compared to the chaotic map and AES.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe PSNR measures show that AES has better results than both the Arnold cat map and the hybrid chaotic map, indicating less noise ratio after encryption and a better decrypted image.
“The PSNR measures show that the AES has better results than both the Arnold cat map and the hybrid chaotic map, which indicates that the noise ratio after encryption is less in AES and it results in a better decrypted image than the other two encryption methods (Ref to Table 2).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe encryption algorithm using the logistic map is entirely key dependent, making it very difficult for an attacker or middle-man to extract information from encrypted images.
“This makes the encryption algorithm entirely key dependent thereby making it very difficult to extract the information from the encrypted images by the attacker or middle-man.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataAES can preserve image properties after encryption or decryption because it has a lower PSNR value and high histogram differences.
“The results showed that AES is computationally inefficient but can preserve the image properties after encryption as it has a lower PSNR value and high histogram differences.”
- Also stated in: § 5. Result and Discussion · plain
“AES has a good characteristic of preserving image properties after decryption as it has a lower PSNR value and significant differences between the histogram of the cipher and the original image.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § 5. Result and Discussion · plain
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe logistic map exhibits chaotic dynamics for 3.57 < λ < 4 and x(n) ∈ (0,1) for all n.
“If we keep increasing the value of λ, the map exhibits chaotic dynamics for 3.57 < λ < 4 and x(n)∈(0,1) for all n.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [18] Pareek, 2006, Image encryption using chaotic logistic map, Image Vis. Comput. source
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe chaotic map and the hybrid chaotic map have fewer histogram variations and more chances for intruders to predict image properties.
“The chaotic map and hybrid chaotic map had similar histograms for encrypted and decrypted images compared to AES, which shows that there are fewer variations and more chances to predict the image properties by intruders.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationStandard encryption algorithms rely on confusion and diffusion, which are also included in chaotic systems.
“The standard encryption algorithms have mainly relied on two important properties of confusion and diffusion for their encryption capability [9], which are also included in the chaotic system, such as being ergodic and extremely sensitive to initial conditions and the system parameters to provide a strong secret key.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [9] Rakesh, 2012, Image encryption using block based uniform scrambling and chaotic logistic mapping, Int. J. Cryptogr. Inf. Secur. source
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationExisting cryptosystems have low scale performance and vulnerability to security threats, making them ineffective for image encryption.
“The low scale performance and vulnerability of existing cryptosystems to security threats make them ineffective for image encryption [7].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [7] Diaconu, 2016, Circular inter–intra pixels bit-level permutation and chaos-based image encryption, Inf. Sci. source
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe chaotic system has properties of ergodicity, unpredictability and sensitivity, opening potential for its use in cryptography.
“Herein, the chaotic system with complex properties of ergodicity, unpredictability and sensitivity has opened the potential for their use in cryptography [8].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [8] Guan, 2005, Chaos-based image encryption algorithm, Phys. Lett. A source
The paper relies on this without support.
A lower PSNR value between the original image and the cipher image indicates a more secure image encryption.
“When comparing the PSNR value derived from the original image and the cipher image, the lower PSNR value denotes the greater difference between them which ultimately implies a more secure image encryption.”
The paper relies on this without support.
A higher NPCR value indicates greater resistance to differential attacks.
“Here, the higher NPCR value represents that the encryption algorithm has a higher resistance for defending against the differential attack of the intruders.”
The paper relies on this without support.
There is a standard range of NPCR and UACI values for passing the differential analysis test.
“It is also noticed that some of the values for NPCR and UACI for the image sets are significantly lower than the standard range of values, which determined the failure of the differential analysis test for that image (Ref. to Table 3).”
The paper relies on this without support.
The histogram of a cipher image must be perfectly uniform for the image to be exact to the original image.
“It must be perfectly uniform for the image to be exact to the original image.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The Arnold cat map encryption algorithm has periodicity, which reduces its encryption security.
“The Arnold cat map encryption algorithm has periodicity, which reduces its encryption security.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Low PSNR is used to infer similarity after decryption
MajorThe paper defines PSNR as comparing the original and cipher images and says a lower value means a greater difference. Section 5 instead treats the low AES PSNR as evidence that the original and decrypted images are similar.
“The result shows that AES has maintained a good image quality after decrypting the image compared to the chaotic cat map and hybrid chaotic map as this is supported by the lower PSNR value for AES.”
“When comparing the PSNR value derived from the original image and the cipher image, the lower PSNR value denotes the greater difference between them”
Conflicting lower bounds for AES PSNR
MinorThe abstract gives 7.53 as the lower end of the AES PSNR range, while Section 5 gives 7.21. Both give 11.93 as the upper end.
“AES has a lower PSNR value (7.53 to 11.93)”
“The PSNR value of AES is in the range of 7.21 (for D2.jpg) to 11.93 (for Baboon.jpg)”
Cited works that were retracted
Works this paper cites that were later retracted, from the retraction notices publishers deposit. Major when the notice came out before this paper was published.
Cites a retracted work: 10.1007/s00521-018-3801-x
InfoThe cited work was retracted on 2022-12-14 (notice 10.1007/s00521-022-08143-y), not before this paper was published (2022-06-10).
Cited work 10.1007/s00521-018-3801-x · retracted 2022-12-14 · notice 10.1007/s00521-022-08143-y · this paper published 2022-06-10
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- Authors
- Chaudhary, N., Shahi, T. B., & Neupane, A.
- Affiliations
- Tribhuvan University (NP)
- Central Queensland University (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Shahi, Tej Bahadur
- Venue
- Journal of Imaging
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2022-06-10
- Volume
- 8
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 167
- ISSN
- 2313-433X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC9224607
- OpenAlex
- W4281774134
- Semantic Scholar
- 64ae4e2cca2ba7e23dfc411a2e138eaec9d5cb6d
- Cited by
- 56
- References
- 31
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 4
- FWCI
- 3.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Imaging (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Chaos-based Image/Signal Encryption
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Computer Science and Engineering
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Cryptographic Implementations and Security
- Keywords
- image encryption, chaotic maps, Arnold cat map, logistic map, hybrid chaotic maps, block cipher, AES, secure image transmission, NPCR, UACI, PSNR, histogram analysis, differential attack resistance, statistical attack resistance
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-21.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-21.
Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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