Effect of Repeated Consumption of Partially Hydrolyzed Guar Gum on Fecal Characteristics and Gut Microbiota: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, and Parallel-Group Clinical Trial
Open accessAbstract
Partially hydrolyzed guar gum (PHGG) is a water-soluble dietary fiber and is used in solid and liquid food to regulate gut function. The aim of this study was to investigate effects of PHGG on bowel movements (stool form and frequency), plasma bile acids, quality of life, and gut microbiota of healthy volunteers with a tendency toward diarrhea, i.e., irritable bowel syndrome diarrhea (IBS-D)-like symptoms. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, and parallel trial was performed on 44 healthy volunteers (22 males, 22 females, 41.9 ± 6.3 years old (average ± SD)) with minimum 7 bowel movements every week, wherein above 50% of their stool was between the Bristol stool scale (BSS) value of 5 and 6. Intake of the PHGG for 3 months significantly improved stool form, evaluated using BSS, and had no effects on stool frequency. BSS was significantly normalized in the group consuming the PHGG compared with the placebo. Comprehensive fecal microbiome analysis by the 16S rRNA-sequence method detected significant changes in the ratio of some bacteria, such as an increase of Bifidobacterium (p < 0.05) in the PHGG group. Our results suggest that intake of PHGG improves human stool form via regulating intestinal microbiota.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Based on previous data on PHGG in adults with a 30% difference in BSFS, a required sample size of 42 patients was calculated to achieve a statistical significance level of 0.05 with 80% power for a 30% post-treatment difference in BSFS between intervention and control groups.
“Based on previous data on the use of PHGG in adults with a 30% difference in BSFS between the intervention and control groups, we calculated a required sample size of 42 patients to achieve a statistical significance level of 0.05 with 80% power for 30% post-treatment difference in BSFS between intervention and control group (20).”
From Effectiveness of Partially Hydrolyzed Guar Gum in Reducing Constipation in Long Term Care Facility Residents: A Randomized Single-Blinded Placebo-Controlled Trial (2022) · cites this paper as [20]
The Results (§3.2; page unavailable) report lower Bristol Stool Scale scores with PHGG than with placebo at weeks 7 and 11, supporting the use of this adult trial as prior evidence of a between-group difference. The paper does not report a 30% difference. Its Sample Size section (§2.13; page unavailable) says the authors could not estimate a minimum sample size and enrolled 44 participants; it does not supply the stated 42-patient, 80%-power calculation. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe study by Yasukawa et al. showed that PHGG exerts prebiotic properties by increasing the concentration of intestinal short-chain fatty acid, Lactobacilli and Bifidobacterium, which indirectly reduces the risk of Clostridium difficile infection.
“The study by Yasukawa et al. showed that PHGG exerts prebiotic properties by increasing the concentration of intestinal short-chain fatty acid, Lactobacilli and Bifidobacterium, which indirectly reduces the risk of Clostridium difficile infection (20).”
From Effectiveness of Partially Hydrolyzed Guar Gum in Reducing Constipation in Long Term Care Facility Residents: A Randomized Single-Blinded Placebo-Controlled Trial (2022) · cites this paper as [20]
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredDietary fiber supplements through PHGG have beneficial effects on microbiota.
“Dietary fiber supplements through PHGG have beneficial effects on microbiota.”
This finding is different from the study by Yasukawa et al., which showed a significant difference between the intervention and control groups.
“This finding is different from the study by Yasukawa et al., which showed a significant difference between the intervention and control groups.20”
The daily dietary fiber intake of participants in the study by Yasukawa et al. was adequate and they did not require any laxative at baseline.
“The daily dietary fiber intake of participants in the study by Yasukawa et al was adequate and they did not require any laxative at baseline.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Review article: the role of butyrate on colonic function
HAMER, H. M., JONKERS, D., VENEMA, K., VANHOUTVIN, S., TROOST, F. J., & BRUMMER, R. ‐. (2008) · Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2007.03562.x · Cited by 2,721 · see citing works
Principles and clinical implications of the brain-gut-enteric microbiota axis
Rhee, S. H., Pothoulakis, C., & Mayer, E. A. (2009) · Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology · doi:10.1038/nrgastro.2009.35 · Cited by 1,342 · cited 5× · see citing works
“PHGG relieves IBS symptoms in patients at 5–11 g/day [36].”
BackgroundInfluentialMartin, C. R., Osadchiy, V., Kalani, A., & Mayer, E. A. (2018) · Cellular and Molecular Gastroenterology and Hepatology · doi:10.1016/j.jcmgh.2018.04.003 · Cited by 1,284 · see citing works
Commensal microbiota and myelin autoantigen cooperate to trigger autoimmune demyelination
Berer, K., Mues, M., Koutrolos, M., Rasbi, Z. A., Boziki, M., Johner, C., Wekerle, H., & Krishnamoorthy, G. (2011) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature10554 · Cited by 1,251 · see citing works
Vandeputte, D., Falony, G., Vieira-Silva, S., Tito, R. Y., Joossens, M., & Raes, J. (2016) · Gut · doi:10.1136/gutjnl-2015-309618 · Cited by 1,028 · see citing works
Carroll, I. M., Chang, Y.-H., Park, J., Sartor, R. B., & Ringel, Y. (2010) · Gut Pathogens · doi:10.1186/1757-4749-2-19 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 47
- [2]Mayer E.A. Gut feelings: The emerging biology of gut–brain communication Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2011 12 453 466 10.1038/nrn3071 21750565 PMC3845678 · DOI · Paper page
- [4]Cryan J.F. Dinan T.G. Mind-altering microorganisms: The impact of the gut microbiota on brain and behaviour Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2012 13 701 712 10.1038/nrn3346 22968153 · DOI · Paper page
- [5]Park A.J. Collins J. Blennerhassett P.A. Ghia J.E. Verdu E.F. Bercik P. Collins S.M. Altered colonic function and microbiota profile in a mouse model of chronic depression Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 2013 25 733-e575 10.1111/nmo.12153 23773726 PMC3912902 · DOI
- [6]Vuong H.E. Hsiao E.Y. Emerging roles for the gut microbiome in autism spectrum disorder Biol. Psychiatry 2017 81 411 423 27773355 PMC5285286
- [7]Sampson T.R. Debelius J.W. Thron T. Janssen S. Gauri G. Ilhan Z.E. Challis C. Schretter C.E. Rocha S. Gradinaru V. Gut Microbiota Regulate Motor Deficits and Neuroinflammation in a Model of Parkinson’s Disease Cell 2017 167 1469 1480 10.1016/j.cell.2016.11.018 27912057 PMC5718049 · DOI · Paper page
- [9]Amaral F.A. Sachs D. Costa V.V. Fagundes C.T. Cisalpino D. Cunha T.M. Ferreira S.H. Cunha F.Q. Silva T.A. Nicoli J.R. Commensal microbiota is fundamental for the development of inflammatory pain Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008 105 2193 2197 10.1073/pnas.0711891105 18268332 PMC2538897 · DOI · Paper page
- [10]Hvas C.L. Ott P. Paine P. Lal S. Jørgensen S.P. Dahlerup J.F. Obeticholic acid for severe bile acid diarrhea with intestinal failure: A case report and review of the literature World J. Gastroenterol. 2018 24 2320 10.3748/wjg.v24.i21.2320 29881241 PMC5989246 · DOI
- [11]Krogsgaard L.R. Engsbro A.L. Bytzer P. The epidemiology of irritable bowel syndrome in Denmark. A population-based survey in adults ≤50 years of age Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 2013 48 523 529 10.3109/00365521.2013.775328 23506174 · DOI · Paper page
- [12]Tinmouth J. Rueda S. Cooper C. Rachlis A. O’Neill T.J. Raboud J.M. Rourke S.B. A Hart T. Burchell A.N. Gastrointestinal Symptom Distress is Associated with Worse Mental and Physical Health Related Quality of Life JAIDS J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 2017 75 67 76 28177965
- [13]Cai J. Zhao C. Du Y. Zhang Y. Zhao M. Zhao Q. Comparative efficacy and tolerability of probiotics for antibiotic-associated diarrhea: Systematic review with network meta-analysis United Eur. Gastroenterol. J. 2018 6 169 180 10.1177/2050640617736987 29511547 PMC5833232 · DOI
- [14]Borbély Y.M. Osterwalder A. Kröll D. Nett P.C. A Inglin R. Diarrhea after bariatric procedures: Diagnosis and therapy World J. Gastroenterol. 2017 23 4689 10.3748/wjg.v23.i26.4689 28765690 PMC5514634 · DOI
- [15]Lucak S. Chang L. Halpert A. Harris L.A. Current and emergent pharmacologic treatments for irritable bowel syndrome with diarrhea: Evidence-based treatment in practice Therap. Adv. Gastroenterol. 2017 10 253 275 10.1177/1756283X16663396 28203283 PMC5298476 · DOI
- [16]Tang Y. Forsyth C.B. Keshavarzian A. New molecular insights into inflammatory bowel disease-induced diarrhea Expert Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2011 5 615 625 10.1586/egh.11.64 21910579 PMC3227675 · DOI
- [17]Takagi T. Naito Y. Inoue R. Kashiwagi S. Uchiyama K. Mizushima K. Tsuchiya S. Dohi O. Yoshida N. Kamada K. Differences in gut microbiota associated with age, sex, and stool consistency in healthy Japanese subjects J. Gastroenterol. 2018 54 53 63 10.1007/s00535-018-1488-5 29926167 · DOI
- [18]Makki K. Deehan E.C. Walter J. Bäckhed F. The Impact of Dietary Fiber on Gut Microbiota in Host Health and Disease Cell Host Microbe 2018 23 705 715 10.1016/j.chom.2018.05.012 29902436 · DOI · Paper page
- [19]Kapoor M.P. Sugita M. Fukuzawa Y. Okubo T. Impact of partially hydrolyzed guar gum (PHGG) on constipation prevention: A systematic review and meta-analysis J. Funct. Foods 2017 33 52 66 10.1016/j.jff.2017.03.028 · DOI
- [21]Watanabe N. Suzuki M. Yamaguchi Y. Egashira Y. Effects of resistant maltodextrin on bowel movements: A systematic review and meta-analysis Clin. Exp. Gastroenterol. 2018 11 8 10.2147/CEG.S153924 29535547 PMC5836649 · DOI
- [22]Okubo T. Ishihara N. Takahashi H. Fujisawa T. Kim M. Yamamoto T. Mitsuoka T. Effects of Partially Hydrolyzed Guar Gum Intake on Human Intestinal Microflora and Its Metabolism Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 1994 58 1364 1369 10.1271/bbb.58.1364 · DOI
- [23]Ohashi Y. Harada K. Tokunaga M. Ishihara N. Okubo T. Ogasawara Y. Juneja L.R. Fujisawa T. Faecal fermentation of partially hydrolyzed guar gum J. Funct. Foods 2012 4 398 402 10.1016/j.jff.2011.09.007 · DOI
- [24]Pylkas A.M. Juneja L.R. Slavin J.L. Comparison of Different Fiber for in Vitro Production of Short Chain Fatty Acids by Intestinal Microflore.pdf J. Med. Food. 2005 8 113 116 10.1089/jmf.2005.8.113 15857221 · DOI
- [25]Velázquez M. Davies C. Marett R. Slavin J.L. Feirtag J.M. Effect of Oligosaccharides and Fibre Substitutes on Short-chain Fatty Acid Production by Human Faecal Microflora Anaerobe 2000 6 87 92 10.1006/anae.1999.0318 · DOI
- [27]Trinidad T. Perez E. Loyola A. Mallillin A. Encabo R. Yokawa T. Aoyama N. Juneja L. Glycemic index of Sunfibre (Cyamoposis tetragonolobus) products in normal and diabetic subjects Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2004 39 1093 1098 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2004.00880.x · DOI
- [29]Kondo S. Xiao J.-Z. Takahashi N. Miyaji K. Iwatsuki K. Kokubo S. Suppressive Effects of Dietary Fiber in Yogurt on the Postprandial Serum Lipid Levels in Healthy Adult Male Volunteers Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 2004 68 1135 1138 10.1271/bbb.68.1135 15170121 · DOI
- [30]Rao T.P. Hayakawa M. Minami T. Ishihara N. Kapoor M.P. Ohkubo T. Juneja L.R. Wakabayashi K. Post-meal perceivable satiety and subsequent energy intake with intake of partially hydrolysed guar gum Br. J. Nutr. 2015 113 1489 1498 10.1017/S0007114515000756 25851425 · DOI
- [31]Homann H.-H. Kemen M. Fuessenich C. Senkal M. Zumtobel V. Reduction in Diarrhea Incidence by Soluble Fiber in Patients Receiving Total or Supplemental Enteral Nutrition J. Parenter. Enter. Nutr. 1994 18 486 490 10.1177/0148607194018006486 7602722 · DOI · Paper page
- [32]Rushdi T.A. Pichard C. Khater Y.H. Control of diarrhea by fiber-enriched diet in ICU patients on enteral nutrition: A prospective randomized controlled trial Clin. Nutr. 2004 23 1344 1352 10.1016/j.clnu.2004.04.008 15556256 · DOI
- [33]Alam N.H. Meier R. Schneider H. Sarker S.A. Bardhan P.K. Mahalanabis D. Fuchs G.J. Gyr N. Partially Hydrolyzed Guar Gum–Supplemented Oral Rehydration Solution in the Treatment of Acute Diarrhea in Children J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 2000 31 503 507 10.1097/00005176-200011000-00010 11144434 · DOI
- [34]Alam N.H. Meier R. Sarker S. Bardhan P.K. Schneider H. Gyr N. Partially hydrolysed guar gum supplemented comminuted chicken diet in persistent diarrhoea: A randomised controlled trial Arch. Dis. Child. 2005 90 195 199 10.1136/adc.2003.040089 15665181 PMC1720249 · DOI
- [35]Nakamura S. Hongo R. Moji K. Oku T. Suppressive effect of partially hydrolyzed guar gum on transitory diarrhea induced by ingestion of maltitol and lactitol in healthy humans Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007 61 1086 1093 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602623 17251924 · DOI
- [36]Williams L. Slavin J.L. Dietary Fiber and Other Alternative Therapies and Irritable Bowel Syndrome Top. Clin. Nutr. 2009 24 262 271 10.1097/TIN.0b013e3181b5441e · DOI
- [37]Higashimura Y. Naito Y. Takagi T. Uchiyama K. Mizushima K. Ushiroda C. Ohnogi H. Kudo Y. Yasui M. Inui S. Protective effect of agaro-oligosaccharides on gut dysbiosis and colon tumorigenesis in high-fat diet-fed mice Am. J. Physiol. Liver Physiol. 2016 310 G367 G375 10.1152/ajpgi.00324.2015 26767984 · DOI
- [38]Tokuda Y. Okubo T. Ohde S. Jacobs J. Takahashi O. Omata F. Yanai H. Hinohara S. Fukui T. Assessing Items on the SF-8 Japanese Version for Health-Related Quality of Life: A Psychometric Analysis Based on the Nominal Categories Model of Item Response Theory Value Heal. 2009 12 568 573 10.1111/j.1524-4733.2008.00449.x 18783391 · DOI
- [39]Inoue R. Ohue-Kitano R. Tsukahara T. Tanaka M. Masuda S. Inoue T. Yamakage H. Kusakabe T. Hasegawa K. Shimatsu A. Prediction of functional profiles of gut microbiota from 16S rRNA metagenomic data provides a more robust evaluation of gut dysbiosis occurring in Japanese type 2 diabetic patients J. Clin. Biochem. Nutr. 2017 61 217 221 10.3164/jcbn.17-44 29203964 PMC5703784 · DOI
- [40]Roberfroid M.B. Prebiotics and probiotics: Are they functional foods? Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2000 71 1682S 1687S 10.1093/ajcn/71.6.1682S 10837317 · DOI
- [41]Shah E. Pimentel M. Evaluating the functional net value of pharmacologic agents in treating irritable bowel syndrome Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 2014 39 973 983 10.1111/apt.12692 24612075 · DOI
- [43]Hotta M. Sato Y. Iwata S. Yamashita N. Sunakawa K. Oikawa T. Tanaka R. Watanabe K. Takayama H. Yajima M. Clinical Effects of Bifidobacterium Preparations Intractable Diarrhea Keio J. Med. 1987 36 298 314 10.2302/kjm.36.298 3682553 · DOI
- [44]Xu H.-B. Jiang R.-H. Sheng H.-B. Meta-analysis of the effects of Bifidobacterium preparations for the prevention and treatment of pediatric antibiotic-associated diarrhea in China Complement. Ther. Med. 2017 33 105 113 10.1016/j.ctim.2017.07.001 28735819 · DOI
- [45]Wick E.C. Sears C.L. Bacteroides spp. and diarrhea Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 2010 23 470 474 10.1097/QCO.0b013e32833da1eb 20697287 PMC3079340 · DOI
- [46]Shukla R. Ghoshal U. Dhole T.N. Ghoshal U.C. Fecal Microbiota in Patients with Irritable Bowel Syndrome Compared with Healthy Controls Using Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction: An Evidence of Dysbiosis Dig. Dis. Sci. 2015 60 2953 2962 10.1007/s10620-015-3607-y 25784074 · DOI
- [48]Giaccari S. Grasso G. Tronci S. Allegretta L. Sponziello G. Montefusco A. Siciliano I.G. Guarisco R. Candiani C. Chiri S. [Partially hydrolyzed guar gum: A fiber as coadjuvant in the irritable colon syndrome] La Clin. Ter. 2001 152 21 25 11382164
- [49]Parisi G. Zilli M. Miani M. Carrara M. Bottona E. Verdianelli G. Battaglia G. Desideri S. Faedo A. Marzolino C. High-Fiber Diet Supplementation in Patients with Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS): A Multicenter, Randomized, Open Trial Comparison Between Wheat Bran Diet and Partially Hydrolyzed Guar Gum (PHGG) Dig. Dis. Sci. 2002 47 1697 1704 10.1023/A:1016419906546 12184518 · DOI
- [50]Parisi G. Bottona E. Carrara M. Cardin F. Faedo A. Goldin D. Marino M. Zilli M. Leandro G. Treatment Effects of Partially Hydrolyzed Guar Gum on Symptoms and Quality of Life of Patients with Irritable Bowel Syndrome. A Multicenter Randomized Open Trial Dig. Dis. Sci. 2005 50 1107 1112 10.1007/s10620-005-2713-7 15986863 · DOI
- [51]Ohashi Y. Sumitani K. Tokunaga M. Ishihara N. Okubo T. Fujisawa T. Consumption of partially hydrolysed guar gum stimulates Bifidobacteria and butyrate-producing bacteria in the human large intestine Benef. Microbes 2015 6 451 455 10.3920/BM2014.0118 25519526 · DOI
- [52]Inoue R. Sakaue Y. Kawada Y. Tamaki R. Yasukawa Z. Ozeki M. Ueba S. Sawai C. Nonomura K. Tsukahara T. Dietary supplementation with partially hydrolyzed guar gum helps improve constipation and gut dysbiosis symptoms and behavioral irritability in children with autism spectrum disorder J. Clin. Biochem. Nutr. 2019 64 217 223 10.3164/jcbn.18-105 31138955 PMC6529696 · DOI
- [53]Slavin J. Fiber and Prebiotics: Mechanisms and Health Benefits Nutrients 2013 5 1417 1435 10.3390/nu5041417 23609775 PMC3705355 · DOI · Paper page
- [54]Hamer H.M. Jonkers D. Venema K. Vanhoutvin S. Troost F.J. Brummer R.J. The role of butyrate on colonic function. Aliment Pharmacol. Ther. 2008 27 104 119 17973645
- [55]Menees S. Saad R. Chey W.D. Agents that act luminally to treat diarrhoea and constipation Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2012 9 661 674 10.1038/nrgastro.2012.162 22945441 · DOI
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Chan, T.-C., Yu, V. M. W., Luk, J. K. H., Chu, L. W., Yuen, J. K. Y., & Chan, F. H. W. (2022) · The Journal of nutrition, health and aging · doi:10.1007/s12603-022-1747-2 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Modulation of gut-brain axis improves microbiome, metabolism, and mood
Talbott, S. M., Talbott, J. A., Stephens, B. J., & Oddou, M. P. (2020) · Functional Foods in Health and Disease · doi:10.31989/ffhd.v10i1.685 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
- Authors
- Yasukawa, Z., Inoue, R., Ozeki, M., Okubo, T., Takagi, T., Honda, A., & Naito, Y.
- Affiliations
- Mie University (JP)
- Laboratory of Animal Science, Department of Agricultural and Life Sciences, Kyoto Prefectural University, Kyoto 606-8522, Japan
- Nutrition Division, Taiyo Kagaku Co., Ltd., Yokkaichi, Mie 510-0844, Japan
- Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine (JP)
- Tokyo Medical University Ibaraki Medical Center (JP)
- Corresponding author
- Yasukawa, Zenta
- Venue
- Nutrients
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2019-09-10
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 2170
- ISSN
- 2072-6643 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6769658
- OpenAlex
- W2972749741
- Cited by
- 89
- References
- 6
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 6
- FWCI
- 6.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- dx.doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Nutrients (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Gastroenterology › Gastrointestinal motility and disorders
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Microbial Metabolites in Food Biotechnology
- Keywords
- partially hydrolyzed guar gum, dietary fiber, stool consistency, stool frequency, gut microbiota, Bifidobacterium, plasma bile acids, quality of life, Bristol stool scale, healthy volunteers
- MeSH terms
- Gastrointestinal Microbiome, Adult, Bacteria, Bile Acids and Salts, Defecation, Diarrhea, Dietary Fiber, Double-Blind Method, Feces, Female, Galactans, Humans, Hydrolysis, Male, Mannans, Middle Aged, Quality of Life, Time Factors, Tokyo, Treatment Outcome, Plant Gums, Young Adult, Prebiotics
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
