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Wireless Power Transfer Techniques for Implantable Medical Devices: A Review
Open accessAbstract
Wireless power transfer (WPT) systems have become increasingly suitable solutions for the electrical powering of advanced multifunctional micro-electronic devices such as those found in current biomedical implants. The design and implementation of high power transfer efficiency WPT systems are, however, challenging. The size of the WPT system, the separation distance between the outside environment and location of the implanted medical device inside the body, the operating frequency and tissue safety due to power dissipation are key parameters to consider in the design of WPT systems. This article provides a systematic review of the wide range of WPT systems that have been investigated over the last two decades to improve overall system performance. The various strategies implemented to transfer wireless power in implantable medical devices (IMDs) were reviewed, which includes capacitive coupling, inductive coupling, magnetic resonance coupling and, more recently, acoustic and optical powering methods. The strengths and limitations of all these techniques are benchmarked against each other and particular emphasis is placed on comparing the implanted receiver size, the WPT distance, power transfer efficiency and tissue safety presented by the resulting systems. Necessary improvements and trends of each WPT techniques are also indicated per specific IMD.
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“A value closer to 1 not only maximizes energy transfer but also minimizes potential thermal damage to neural tissues—a concern for BMIs requiring high computational power for real-time neural decoding (Haerinia and Shadid, 2020; Khan et al., 2020).”
From Comparative analysis of energy transfer mechanisms for neural implants (2024) · cites this paper as Khan et al., 2020
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“This system utilizes a closed current loop and relies on the displacement current, IDisp., between the conductor plates to establish wireless power transfer across tissue layers (Khan et al., 2020).”
From Comparative analysis of energy transfer mechanisms for neural implants (2024) · cites this paper as Khan et al., 2020
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Recent advances in magnetic metamaterials for enhancing the efficiency of wireless power transfer
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“Subsequently, it has been extended to inductive coupling based on near-field interactions, which has been widely employed for power delivery in implanted medical devices [4].”
Niyazi, A., Leese, H. S., Metcalfe, B., & Lorenzo, M. D. (2026) · Advanced Science · doi:10.1002/advs.202520294
Smirnov, P., Mindubaev, E., Danilov, A. A., & Kapitanova, P. (2026) · IEEE Journal of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics · doi:10.1109/jestpe.2025.3639111
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Gu, X.-Y., Zhong, W., Mao, Z., Shi, Y., & Wang, Y.-X. (2026) · Bioengineering · doi:10.3390/bioengineering13040469
“Battery leakage can also pose a threat to patient safety [8].”
Low-Power Closed-Loop iBCI System: Prototype Design and Safety Evaluation
Starikov, I. (2026) · 2026 ElCon Conference of Young Researchers in Communication and Networking, Signal Processing & Analysis, Biomedical and Environmental Engineering (ElCon-CN) · doi:10.1109/elcon-cn69892.2026.11414060
“The most suitable and widely accepted WPT method for implantable devices is inductive coupling (IC) [4], which is based on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.”
An Implantable Antenna Design Optimized Using PSO Algorithm
Nguyen, M. P., Linkous, L., Suche, M., & Green, R. B. (2026) · Applied Informatics · doi:10.3390/ai7020047
Performance of Charging Batteries by Using Compound Wireless Power Transfer System
Alsaedi, N. Q. A., Guneser, M., Saleh, A. L., & Számel, L. (2026) · IET Wireless Sensor Systems · doi:10.1049/wss2.70020
A Loop Antenna Based Near-Field Inductive Wireless Power Transfer System for IMDs
Joshi, A. C., & Sarkar, D. (2025) · 2025 IEEE Microwaves, Antennas, and Propagation Conference (MAPCON) · doi:10.1109/mapcon65020.2025.11425886
“However, the long-term operation of IMDs is limited by the finite capacity and lifespan of internal batteries [2], necessitating periodic surgical replacement that poses risks and increases patient discomfort [3] [4].”
Automated Coil Optimization for Efficient Wireless Power Transfer in Implantable Medical Devices
Lee, C., Kim, Y., Kim, H., Park, H., Lee, J., Ha, S., & Kweon, S.-J. (2025) · Asia-Pacific Microwave Conference · doi:10.1109/apmc65046.2025.11378406
“A primary design goal is to maximize power transfer efficiency (PTE) by minimizing energy absorption in the surrounding tissue [1], [2].”
Review on non-invasive recharging methods for medical implants
Tacyniak, P., Defoort, M., & Basrour, S. (2025) · Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering · doi:10.1088/1361-6439/ae262d
Gurov, K., Mindubaev, E. A., & Danilov, A. A. (2025) · Russian microelectronics · doi:10.1134/s1063739725700209
Aubakirov, R., Gurov, K., & Danilov, A. A. (2025) · Russian microelectronics · doi:10.1134/s1063739725700118
Aubakirov, R., & Danilov, A. A. (2025) · Russian microelectronics · doi:10.1134/s1063739725700192
“Wireless energy transmission systems, which include inductive energy transmission systems, are actively used in many industries, including in the creation of implantable medical equipment [1, 2].”
Selyutina, E., Gurov, K., Mindubaev, E. A., & Danilov, A. A. (2025) · Russian microelectronics · doi:10.1134/s1063739725700167
“Inductive power supply (IPS) systems are used to supply energy to, for example, electric vehicles [1] and rail transport [2], drones [3], smartphones [4], and implantable medical devices [5].”
A Novel LLM-AI Based Automation Framework for High Frequency Wireless Power Transfer Design
Ibrahim, K., Luk, P. C.-K., Lu, Z.-H., Ng, S., & Harrison, L. (2025) · International Conference on Computing, Communication and Automation · doi:10.1109/iccca66364.2025.11325136
A 13.56 MHz Inductive Wireless Power Transfer System for Active Implantable Medical Devices
Dentis, A., Cantore, L., Concadoro, S., Demarchi, D., & Ros, P. M. (2025) · International Conference on Electronics, Circuits, and Systems · doi:10.1109/icecs66544.2025.11270672
“In biomedical contexts, IWPT has emerged as a reliable and efficient alternative to battery-based solutions [1].”
High‐Efficiency Toroidal Magnetoelectric Wireless Power Transfer in Conductive Media
Leung, C.-M., & Chen, H. (2025) · Physica Status Solidi (a) · doi:10.1002/pssr.202500355
Edebiri, J., & Zhang, C. (2025) · European Conference on Cognitive Ergonomics · doi:10.1109/ecce58356.2025.11259581
“Originally pioneered by Nikola Tesla [1], the technology has been hugely beneficial in the field of biomedical implants [2] and consumer electronics [3], but now provides new scope to support higher-power use cases, including electric vehicle (EV) charging, industrial robotics, and smart…”
Katode, A. V. (2025) · 2025 IEEE 2nd International Conference on Green Industrial Electronics and Sustainable Technologies (GIEST) · doi:10.1109/giest66547.2025.11387565
“Its role is therefore not supplementary but fundamental in ensuring the system’s safety, reliability, and real-world usability [19].”
Stephens, V. (2025) · Journal of Digital Business and International Marketing · doi:10.64026/jdbim/2025020
“(6)”
A Bidirectional, Full-Duplex, Implantable Wireless CMOS System for Prosthetic Control
Collu, R., Salis, C., Ferrazzano, E., & Barbaro, M. (2025) · Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks · doi:10.3390/jsan14050092
Ge, C., Yalagala, B., Masalehdan, T., Baghini, M. S., Gregurec, D., & Heidari, H. (2025) · Advanced Engineering Materials · doi:10.1002/adem.202501120
Fan, Z., Zhang, Q., Xin, B., Deng, T., Wu, Z., Jiao, J., Duan, C., & Gao, A. (2025) · Applied Physics Letters · doi:10.1063/5.0284964
Baguant, A., Toulemonde, P., Schmerber, S., Baguant, K., Vincent, C., Dumon, T., & Quatre, R. (2025) · The Journal of Otolaryngology · doi:10.1177/19160216251364765
“The transcutaneous implants are bigger because they include a receiver that transmits the signal through the skin using a wireless transfer power system that needs coils on the external as well as the internal part 14 and the vibrating system differs in its technology depending on the brand.”
Poggiana, G., Torchio, R., Zorzetto, M., & Dughiero, F. (2025) · 2025 IEEE Wireless Power Technology Conference and Expo (WPTCE) · doi:10.1109/wptce62521.2025.11062090
“Its inherent flexibility and the reduced driver involvement in the charging process have accelerated its adoption across a wide range of civil and industrial applications [1]–[3].”
Nanni, F., Mostaccio, A., & Marrocco, G. (2025) · 2025 IEEE Wireless Power Technology Conference and Expo (WPTCE) · doi:10.1109/wptce62521.2025.11062261
“Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) technology has become an essential solution for powering Implantable Medical Devices (IMDs) [1], such as neural monitoring systems, cardiovascular implants, and various implantable sensors.”
Wireless Power Transfer Through Biological Tissue: The Role of The Interface
Simovski, C., Nam, H.-V., & Tretyakov, S. (2025) · 2025 IEEE Wireless Power Technology Conference and Expo (WPTCE) · doi:10.1109/wptce62521.2025.11062190
“…electromagnetically large Tx antenna, which should be an efficient and even directive radiator, and the optimal band corresponds to the deal between the efficiency of two antennas growing versus frequency and the attenuation of the radiated wave over the electromagnetically substantial path d [9].”
Marini, E., Coviello, A., & Magarini, M. (2025) · International Symposium on Medical Information and Communication Technology · doi:10.1109/ismict64722.2025.11059400
“PTE: PTE between adjacent coils for the unloaded configuration is given by [19, Eq.”
Fu, S., Song, L., Wang, Y., Wang, J., Su, D., & Rahmat‐Samii, Y. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques · doi:10.1109/tmtt.2024.3486043
“Besides, many implantable medical devices (IMDs) employ inductive coupling for wireless power transfer (WPT), with frequencies ranging from tens of kilohertz to hundreds of megahertz [11].”
Tao, M., Lo, J. C. C., Tsui, C.-Y., & Lee, S. W. R. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Components Packaging and Manufacturing Technology · doi:10.1109/tcpmt.2025.3531795
“Nevertheless, some studies suggest that the Parylene-C with a thickness of over 20 µ m could be capable of service for more than five years [49], [50], [51], [52], [53].”
Yin, M., & Li, X. (2025) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics14071381 · Cited by 3
Directional power transfer and data communication using magnetic resonance wireless charging system
Chien, Y., Huang, C.-C., & Lin, C.-L. (2025) · Jurnal Engineering · doi:10.1049/tje2.70044
Dual‐state and self‐oscillating wireless charging system topology for direct‐drive battery
Li, B., Zhang, B., & Xie, K. (2024) · IET Power Electronics · doi:10.1049/pel2.12797
Design of the Coil for Wireless Power Transfer in Deep Brain Stimulators
Fu, Y., Luo, J.-N., & Wang, C. (2024) · International Symposium on Electrical, Electronics and Information Engineering · doi:10.1109/iseeie62461.2024.00052
“These coils were referenced from those used at the transmitter end of the wireless power transmission of implantable medical devices in the literature [16].”
Integrated Demodulator for Manchester-Coded AM Signals with Clock Retrieval in US Applications
Busse, H., Rodrigues, G., Caetano, D. M., Santos, M. B., & Fernandes, J. R. (2024) · Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/mwscas60917.2024.10658925
Wearable Electromagnetic Halbach Array for Wirelessly Charging Implantable Biomedical Devices
Luo, X., Gou, R.-L., Sha, Y.-X., Zhu, D.-B., Yong, S., & Beeby, S. (2024) · 2024 IEEE Wireless Power Technology Conference and Expo (WPTCE) · doi:10.1109/wptce59894.2024.10557437
Feasibility analysis of wireless power delivery to implanted sensors of XLIF patients
Mukhopadhyay, S., Senn, I., Ramakrishna, V. A. S., George, B., Prusty, G., & Diwan, A. (2024) · International Journal on Smart Sensing and Intelligent Systems · doi:10.2478/ijssis-2024-0028
Capacitive Power Transfer Modeling of Charging Inner-body Devices
Abdelhafiz, S. M., Fouda, M. E., Said, L., & Radwan, A. G. (2023) · International Conference on Electronics, Circuits, and Systems · doi:10.1109/icecs58634.2023.10382898
“The flexion characteristics of the implant coils can lead to several mismatches in the resonance capacitance [3].”
BackgroundWireless Micro Energy Transmission Based on MEMS Microcoil
Wang, Y.-D., Yi, C., Chen, H., & Sun, X. (2023) · 2023 3rd International Conference on New Energy and Power Engineering (ICNEPE) · doi:10.1109/icnepe60694.2023.10429737
“…energy transmission technology will carry out a small to medium-sized power requirements for surgical devices that are implanted in patients [2]; avoid the corresponding battery replacement operation which will have to be done when the power of the device is exhausted [3]; improve the…”
BackgroundWireless Power Transfer for Smart Power Outlet
Taha, T., Fadhil, M., Hussain, A., Ahmed, S. A., Desa, H., & Mohammedshakir, M. M. (2023) · International Service Availability Symposium · doi:10.1109/isas60782.2023.10391618
Conformal Strongly Coupled Magnetic Resonance Wireless Power Transfer with Printed Double-D Coils
Hong, W., Wang, J.-C., Lim, E., Leach, M., Wang, Z., Jiang, Z.-Z., & Huang, Y. (2023) · 2023 IEEE 11th International Conference on Information, Communication and Networks (ICICN) · doi:10.1109/icicn59530.2023.10393740
“However, the original SCMR architecture involves intermediate coils that increase system size, making it unsuitable for miniaturized applications [6].”
BackgroundWang, J., Wang, H., Li, J., & Xiao, W.-D. (2023) · Cybersecurity and Cyberforensics Conference · doi:10.23919/ccc58697.2023.10239933
Algorithms for the Design and Optimization of Coil Pairs in Inductive Power Systems for Implants
Morozov, A. V., & Danilov, A. A. (2023) · Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1007/s10527-023-10287-7 · Cited by 1
Elsaadi, M., Abouqallah, A., Akraym, H., Khaled, L., & Gebril, S. (2023) · 2023 IEEE 3rd International Maghreb Meeting of the Conference on Sciences and Techniques of Automatic Control and Computer Engineering (MI-STA) · doi:10.1109/mi-sta57575.2023.10169415
“As alternative, wireless power transfer (WPT) technology could be one of the cost-effective and attractive solutions, which has been received a significant consideration in the literature recently [2-6].”
BackgroundHuman Skull Implantable Wireless Power Transfer System
Resende, Ú., Almeida, M. D., & Soares, Í. (2023) · 2023 IEEE International Magnetic Conference - Short Papers (INTERMAG Short Papers) · doi:10.1109/intermagshortpapers58606.2023.10228519
“Thus, this new IMD configuration can enable the development/enhancement of new procedures and treatments, especially those that require the placement of implants in critical regions of the human body, such as the brain [1].”
BackgroundMindubaev, E. A., & Savel'ev, N. O. (2023) · Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1007/s10527-023-10264-0
“One direction in the development of implantable medical devices is that of increasing their functionality [1].”
BackgroundRyabchenko, E. V., Mindubaev, E. A., & Danilov, A. (2022) · Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1007/s10527-022-10195-2
Metadata
- Authors
- Khan, S. R., Pavuluri, S. K., Cummins, G., & Desmulliez, M. P. Y.
- Affiliations
- Heriot-Watt University (GB)
- University of Birmingham (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Khan, Sadeque Reza
- Venue
- Sensors
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2020-06-19
- Volume
- 20
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 3487
- ISSN
- 1424-8220 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7349694
- OpenAlex
- W3036329699
- Cited by
- 355
- References
- 219
- Citations by year
- 2026: 50 · 2025: 70 · 2024: 69 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 50 · 2021: 40 · 2020: 6
- FWCI
- 2.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- dx.doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Sensors (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- University of Birmingham Research Portal (University of Birmingham) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EP/K034537/2)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Wireless Power Transfer Systems
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Wireless Body Area Networks
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Induction Heating and Inverter Technology
- Keywords
- wireless power transfer, biomedical implants, inductive coupling, magnetic resonance coupling, capacitive coupling, power transfer efficiency, tissue safety, separation distance, operating frequency
- MeSH terms
- Electronics, Electric Power Supplies, Prostheses and Implants, Wireless Technology
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