Sex Differences in Athletic Performance Response to the Imagery and Mental Toughness of Elite Middle- and Long-Distance Runners
Open accessAbstract
This study aimed to determine whether there is a difference between the levels of imagery and mental toughness in the context of sports performance in male and female athletes. A total of 344 track and field athletes, 205 male (59.6%, 23.3 ± 4.0 years) and 139 female (40.4%, 22.9 ± 4.0 years), voluntarily participated in the study. Imagery Inventory and Mental Toughness Inventory in Sport were used as data collection tools in the study. In the evaluation of athletic performance, athletes were asked about their ranks in the years 2020, 2021, and 2022 and were categorized according to the scoring tables specified by the International Association of Athletics Federation. A MANOVA analysis was used to determine whether there was a difference between low (−2% to +5%), medium (+6 to +11%), and high (+12 to +17%) performers among male and female athletes, and a post hoc analysis was used to determine the source of the difference. According to the present findings, there was no significant difference between the imagery and mental toughness levels of athletes with high, medium, and low performance among male athletes. On the contrary, a significant difference was detected between the imagery and mental toughness levels of female athletes with medium and high performances, showing that athletes in the high-performance range had higher levels of imagery (Eta2 = 8) and mental toughness (Eta2 = 10) than athletes in the medium- and low-performance ranges. The findings of this study show that imagery and emotional intelligence are important factors for sports performance. In this context, coaches and sports psychologists can include these parameters in their training programs to achieve the optimal performance range.
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Elite athletes may derive greater benefit from imagery due to higher performance experience and psychological preparedness.
“Elite athletes may derive greater benefit from imagery due to higher performance experience and psychological preparedness [112–114].”
From The Effect of Different Psychological Interventions on Athletes' Competitive Anxiety: A Systematic Review and Bayesian Network Meta-Analysis. (2026) · cites this paper as [113]
The Results and Discussion (pages unavailable) report higher imagery levels among high-performing female athletes and note that imagery’s effect may vary with experience. They do not show that elite athletes benefit more than less-experienced athletes, or that greater benefit is due to performance experience and psychological preparedness; the study found no significant relationship in men. (LLM, conf=0.86)
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Zmora, G., Trowbridge, C. A., & Been, E. (2025) · Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly · doi:10.1123/apaq.2024-0031 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
SPORCU ÖZ YETERLİLİĞİNİN PSİKOLOJİK SAĞLAMLIK VE HEDEF BAĞLILIĞI ÜZERİNDEKİ YORDAYICI ETKİSİ
Yılmaz, B. H., Mergan, B., & Üstün, N. A. (2024) · Ankara Üniversitesi Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Yüksekokulu SPORMETRE Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi · doi:10.33689/spormetre.1465822 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Papadakis, Z., & Stamatis, A. (2026) · Sports · doi:10.3390/sports14070282 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Öğretmen Adaylarının İletişim Becerileri ve Empati Düzeyleri Arasındaki İlişki
Dursun, M. (2024) · Herkes için Spor ve Rekreasyon Dergisi · doi:10.56639/jsar.1527411 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
DALĞALI, V., & Tutal, V. (2024) · Journal of Education and Recreation Patterns · doi:10.53016/jerp.v5i2.261
Athleticism Through the Eyes of Athletes: A Metaphor Study
Güler, M., & Güler, B. (2025) · CBÜ Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi · doi:10.33459/cbubesbd.1557138
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Evaluation of Sport Activity Imagery States in Athletes During Childhood and Adolescence
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“Previous research found that elite male athletes at different performance levels have similar baseline mental endurance levels (Yarayan et al., 2024).”
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Baykan, E. (2026) · Dede Korkut Spor Bilimleri Dergisi · doi:10.71243/dksbd.2004653
- Authors
- Yarayan, Y. E., Solmaz, S., Aslan, M., Batrakoulis, A., Al-Mhanna, S. B., & Keskin, K.
- Affiliations
- Siirt Üniversitesi (TR)
- Batman University (TR)
- University of Thessaly (GR)
- Universiti Sains Malaysia (MY)
- Gazi University (TR)
- Corresponding author
- Keskin, Kadir
- ORCID
- Venue
- Sports
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2024-05-23
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 141
- ISSN
- 2075-4663 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC11207883
- OpenAlex
- W4398253114
- Cited by
- 20
- References
- 67
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 4
- FWCI
- 15.56
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Sports (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Sport Psychology and Performance
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychological Treatments and Assessments
- Keywords
- sex differences, mental imagery, mental toughness, athletic performance, middle-distance running, long-distance running, track and field athletes, elite athletes, emotional intelligence, performance ranking
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