Psychological Resilience: A Review and Critique of Definitions, Concepts, and Theory

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Resilience is conceptualized as the interactive influence of psychological characteristics within the context of the stress process.

“Resilience is conceptualized as the interactive influence of psychological characteristics within the context of the stress process.”

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Understanding positive adaptation from within the cultural frame from which competence emerges (an emic perspective) is a more ecologically sensitive approach than assuming neutrality or objectivity in the use of competence indicators across settings (an etic perspective).

“Rather than assuming neutrality or objectivity in the use of competence indicators across settings (i.e., an etic perspective), they propose that understanding positive adaptation from within the cultural frame from which competence emerges (i.e., an emic perspective) is a more ecologically sensitive approach (see also Waller, 2001).”

• cites Waller, 2001Not checked yet

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The specific sociocultural conditions in which an individual functions must be considered when examining competence.

“This perspective is supported by Mahoney and Bergman (2002) who stated that the specific sociocultural conditions in which an individual functions must be considered when examining competence”

• cites Mahoney and Bergman (2002)Not checked yet

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Failing to consider sociocultural conditions may lead to a view of positive adaptation as a static phenomenon with relevance to only a minority of persons in select circumstances.

“and that 'failing to do so may lead to a view of positive adaptation as a static phenomenon with relevance to only a minority of persons in select circumstances' (p. 212).”

• cites Mahoney and Bergman (2002)Not checked yet

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Conceptual discrepancies hinder the evaluation and comparison of resilience research findings, preclude meta-analysis, and make it difficult to operationalize the construct for measurement purposes.

“Indeed, Davydov, Stewart, Ritchie and Chaudieu (2010) recently observed that conceptual discrepancies hinder the evaluation and comparison of resilience research findings, preclude meta-analysis, and make it difficult to operationalize the construct for measurement purposes.”

• cites Davydov, Stewart, Ritchie and Chaudieu (2010)Not checked yet

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The construct of resilience has variously been defined as a trait, process or outcome.

“For instance, the construct of resilience has variously been defined as a trait, process or outcome.”

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An important debate concerns the conceptualization of resilience as either a trait or a process.

“An important debate to emerge from the literature concerns the conceptualization of resilience as either a trait or a process (see, for a review, Windle, 2011).”

• cites Windle, 2011Not checked yet

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Inconsistencies in the specific delineation of adversity and positive adaptation have led to confusion about their meaning and to some researchers questioning the scientific value of resilience itself.

“However, inconsistencies in the specific delineation of these concepts have led to confusion about their meaning, and to some researchers questioning the scientific value of resilience itself (Bodin & Winman, 2004).”

• cites Bodin & Winman, 2004Not checked yet

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The main antecedent of resilience is deemed to be adversity and the main consequence is considered to be positive adaptation.

“As discussed in the previous section, the main antecedent of resilience is deemed to be adversity and the main consequence is considered to be positive adaptation.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Resilience research has predominantly defined positive adaptation from a Western psychological discourse with an emphasis on individual and relational capacities, such as academic success and healthy relationships.

“Ungar and colleagues (Ungar 2008; Ungar & Lienbenberg, 2011) argued that resilience research has predominantly defined positive adaptation from a Western psychological discourse with an emphasis on individual and relational capacities, such as academic success and healthy relationships.”

• cites Ungar 2008Not checked yet

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• cites Ungar & Lienbenberg, 2011Not checked yet

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For an individual exposed to a serious life adversity, it is appropriate to define competence in terms of the absence of psychiatric diagnoses rather than evidence of excellent functioning.

“More specifically, for an individual exposed to a serious life adversity (e.g., PTEs such as direct exposure to terrorist attacks) it is appropriate to define competence in terms of the absence of psychiatric diagnoses rather than evidence of excellent functioning.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

These outcomes lack sensitivity to cultural factors that contextualize how resilience is defined by different populations and manifested in different practices.

“According to Ungar and colleagues, these outcomes lack sensitivity to cultural factors that contextualize how resilience is defined by different populations and manifested in different practices.”

• cites Ungar 2008Not checked yet

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• cites Ungar & Lienbenberg, 2011Not checked yet

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To combine protective and promotive factors under the general rubric of psychological resilience is conceptually grievous because it suggests that resilience is a quality that one either has or does not have.

“Further, to essentially combine such factors under the general rubric of psychological resilience is conceptually grievous since it suggests that resilience is a quality that one either has or does not have (cf. Luthar et al., 2000b).”

• cites Luthar et al., 2000bNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The conceptual model of medical student well-being highlights personality and temperament factors as fundamental to resilience, whereas the conceptual model for community and youth resiliency emphasizes social support.

“For example, the conceptual model of medical student well-being (Dunn, Iglewicz & Moutier, 2008) highlights personality and temperament factors as being fundamental to resilience, whereas the conceptual model for community and youth resiliency (Brennan, 2008) emphasizes the importance of social support.”

• cites Dunn, Iglewicz & Moutier, 2008Not checked yet

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• cites Brennan, 2008Not checked yet

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The interaction between people and their environments is an important consideration when conceptualizing resilience.

“The interaction between people and their environments is an important consideration when conceptualizing resilience (Waller, 2001).”

• cites Waller, 2001Not checked yet

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The construct of resilience has often been closely aligned to coping.

“Since it is commonly believed that resilience results from the operation of basic human adaptational systems (Masten, 2001), the construct has often been closely aligned to coping.”

• cites Masten, 2001Not checked yet

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Individuals who demonstrate resilience are likely to also exhibit effective coping strategies and styles.

“Whilst individuals who demonstrate resilience are likely to also exhibit effective coping strategies and 'styles'.”

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Resilience refers to the ability of individuals to maintain normal levels of functioning.

“Recovery is characterized by a temporary period of psychopathology followed by gradual restoration to healthy levels of functioning, whereas resilience refers to the ability of individuals to maintain normal levels of functioning.”

• cites Bonanno, 2004Not checked yet

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Resilience is the process of coping with stressors, adversity, change or opportunity in a manner that results in the identification, fortification, and enrichment of resilient qualities or protective factors.

“For example, Richardson (2002) proposed that resilience is 'the process of coping with stressors, adversity, change or opportunity in a manner that results in the identification, fortification, and enrichment of resilient qualities or protective factors' (p. 308).”

• cites Richardson (2002)Not checked yet

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The emphasis placed on different factors in resilience theories often varies.

“However, in terms of specific explanatory potential, the emphasis placed on different factors often varies.”

May combine two claims.

Resilience influences how an event is appraised, whereas coping refers to the strategies employed following the appraisal of a stressful encounter.

“Thus, resilience influences how an event is appraised, whereas coping refers to the strategies employed following the appraisal of a stressful encounter.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Resilience is characterized by its influence on one's appraisal prior to emotional and coping responses and by its positive, protective impact, whereas coping is characterized by its response to a stressful encounter and by its varying effectiveness in resolving outstanding issues.

“Hence, resilience is characterized by its influence on one's appraisal prior to emotional and coping responses and by its positive, protective impact, whereas coping is characterized by its response to a stressful encounter and by its varying effectiveness in resolving outstanding issues.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Resilience consists of various factors that promote personal assets and protect individuals from the negative appraisal of stressors.

“resilience consists of various factors that promote personal assets and protect individuals from the negative appraisal of stressors”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Individuals who exhibit resilience seem to be able to proceed with their lives with minimal or no apparent disruptions in their daily functioning.

“In contrast, individuals who exhibit resilience seem to be able to proceed with their lives with minimal or no apparent disruptions in their daily functioning.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Protective and promotive factors should be considered in relation to their specific function.

“Rather, we argue that protective and promotive factors should be considered in relation to their specific function”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Recovery is characterized by a temporary period of psychopathology followed by gradual restoration to healthy levels of functioning.

“Recovery is characterized by a temporary period of psychopathology followed by gradual restoration to healthy levels of functioning, whereas resilience refers to the ability of individuals to maintain normal levels of functioning.”

• cites Bonanno, 2004Not checked yet

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Over a dozen theories of resilience have been proposed by various researchers during the past three decades.

“During the past three decades, over a dozen theories of resilience have been proposed by various researchers (see Table II).”

• cites Table IINot checked yet

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Resilience results from the operation of basic human adaptational systems.

“Since it is commonly believed that resilience results from the operation of basic human adaptational systems (Masten, 2001), the construct has often been closely aligned to coping.”

• cites Masten, 2001Not checked yet

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Women with more resilient personality resources (self-esteem, perceived control, and optimism) were less likely to appraise their upcoming abortions as stressful.

“For example, Major et al. (1998) found that women who had more resilient personality resources to draw on (i.e., self esteem, perceived control, and optimism) were less likely to appraise their upcoming abortions as stressful.”

• cites Major et al., 1998Not checked yet

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Resilience is a capacity that develops over time in the context of person-environment interactions.

“These findings support the notion that resilience is a capacity that develops over time in the context of person-environment interactions (Egeland, Carlson, & Sroufe, 1993).”

• cites Egeland, Carlson, & Sroufe, 1993Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The majority of theories incorporate the notion that resilience is a dynamic process that changes over time.

“The majority of theories incorporate the notion that resilience is a dynamic process that changes over time.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Resilience-related variables appear conceptually analogous to a number of protective and promotive factors.

“In the context of the present discussion it is interesting to note that these variables appear conceptually analogous to a number of the aforementioned protective and promotive factors.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

A key distinction between resilience and coping relates to the consequences associated with aspects of the stress process.

“Another key distinction between resilience and coping relates to the consequences associated with aspects of the stress process (Skinner & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2007; Van Vliet, 2008).”

• cites Skinner & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2007Not checked yet

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• cites Van Vliet, 2008Not checked yet

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The process conceptualization of resilience recognizes that the effects of protective and promotive factors vary contextually and temporally.

“The process conceptualization of resilience recognizes that the effects of the protective and promotive factors will vary contextually (from situation to situation) and temporally (throughout a situation and across an individual's lifespan).”

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An appreciation of the nature and array of protective and promotive factors is critical to understanding and developing psychological resilience.

“and that an appreciation of the nature and array of these factors is critical to understanding and developing psychological resilience.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Coping and recovery should be conceived as conceptually distinct from psychological resilience.

“While coping and recovery are often discussed in relation to resilience, and sometimes used interchangeably with the term, the remainder of this section provides an overview of these constructs and argues that they should be conceived as conceptually distinct from psychological resilience.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Resilience augurs a positive response to a potentially stressful situation, whereas reactionary coping strategies may be positive or negative.

“Resilience augurs a positive response to a potentially stressful situation (e.g., the experience of positive emotions) whereas the nature of reactionary coping strategies may be positive (e.g., encouraging self-dialogue) or negative (e.g., substance abuse).”

May combine two claims.

Theoretical explanations of resilience often encapsulate other related psychosocial constructs and overlap with other areas of scientific inquiry.

“Hence, theoretical explanations of resilience often encapsulate other related psychosocial constructs and overlap with other areas of scientific inquiry.”

May combine two claims.

Richardson and colleagues' theory and accompanying model are conceptually flawed and their explanatory potential has yet to be rigorously examined.

“Although Richardson and colleagues stimulate an interdisciplinary exchange of the multiple meanings of resilience, the theory and accompanying model are conceptually flawed and their explanatory potential have yet to be rigorously examined.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Those who demonstrate resilience appraise emotions as facilitative to one's functioning.

“with Fletcher et al. (2006) suggesting that those who demonstrate resilience appraise emotions as facilitative to one's functioning.”

• cites Fletcher et al., 2006Not checked yet

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Richardson's metatheory can potentially be applied to different types of stressors, adversities and life events and at various levels of analysis (individual, familial and community).

“This particular theory (and its accompanying model) is discussed here since it can potentially be applied to different types of stressors, adversities and life events and at various levels of analysis (such as individual, familial and community).”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Connor and Davidson concluded that resilience may be viewed as a measure of successful stress-coping ability.

“This was highlighted by Connor and Davidson (2003) who discussed the model and subsequently concluded that 'resilience may thus… be viewed as a measure of successful stress-coping ability' (p. 77).”

• cites Connor and Davidson, 2003Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

While resilience is considered the most desirable outcome in most theories, some researchers include other positive outcome indicators such as optimal coping, job satisfaction, and productivity.

“In addition, while resilience is considered to be the most desirable outcome in the majority of theories, some researchers include other (positive) outcome indicators in their theories, such as optimal coping (Agaibi & Wilson, 2005), job satisfaction (Paton et al., 2008), and productivity (Riolli & Savicki, 2003).”

• cites Agaibi & Wilson, 2005Not checked yet

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• cites Paton et al., 2008Not checked yet

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• cites Riolli & Savicki, 2003Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Richardson's resiliency model is a linear model that considers just one event as it relates to an individual's experience.

“Firstly, it is a linear model which considers just one event as it relates to an individual's experience.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

There is a recognized need for clarity and specificity in how resilience is defined, conceptualized, and theorized.

“In response to the differences in how resilience has been defined, conceptualized and theorized, the need for clarity and specificity has been recognized (see, e.g., Davydov et al., 2010).”

• cites Davydov et al., 2010Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The majority of resilience theories are specific to particular populations, and there is a call for a generic theory applicable across different groups and potentially stressful situations.

“With the majority of resilience theories being specific to particular populations (e.g., adolescents, families, police officers), there is an understandable call for a generic theory that can be applied across different groups of people and potentially stressful situations (see, e.g., Richardson, 2002).”

• cites Richardson, 2002Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Exposure to adversity in moderation can mobilize previously untapped resources, help engage social support networks, and create a sense of mastery for future adversities.

“Indeed, drawing from theories of stress inoculation (Meichenbaum, 1985), it has been suggested that exposure to adversity in moderation can mobilize previously untapped resources, help engage social support networks, and create a sense of mastery for future adversities.”

• cites Meichenbaum, 1985Not checked yet

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