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Cited by 38Urban, Neighborhood, and Segregation StudiesCrime Patterns and InterventionsHealth disparities and outcomes

Family Income and Gang Presence in the Neighborhood: Diminished Returns of Black Families

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Assari, Shervin, Boyce, Shanika, Caldwell, Cleopatra H., Bazargan, Mohsen, Mincy, Ron·2020·Urban Science
DOI 10.3390/urbansci4020029PMC PMC7363405
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Abstract

Background: Based on the Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDRs) framework, indicators of high socioeconomic status, such as higher family income, show weaker protective effects on various developmental, behavioral, and health outcomes for Black than White families. As a result of these MDRs, Black families who access education and income still report high levels of depression, smoking, obesity, and chronic disease. Limited knowledge exists on MDRs of income on neighborhood quality. Aims: Built on the MDRs framework, this study tested the hypothesis of whether the effect of family income and maternal education at birth on neighborhood gang presence varies between Black and White families. The hypotheses were that: (1) higher income families would report lower gang presence in their neighborhood, and (2) compared to Whites, Blacks would show weaker protective effects of family income on gang presence in their neighborhood. Methods: The Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study is a 15-year follow up study of a random sample of births in cities with larger than 200,000 population. Two thousand nine hundred and nineteen White or Black families were included and were followed from birth of their child for 15 years. The predictors were family income and maternal education at birth, treated as categorical variables. The outcome was gang presence in the neighborhood at age 15. Logistic regression was used for data analysis. Results: Higher maternal education at birth was inversely associated with gang presence in the neighborhoods, while family income at birth did not show an effect on reducing gang presence in the neighborhood at age 15. Family income at birth and race interact, suggesting that the association between family income at birth and gang presence in the neighborhood at age 15 was weaker for Black than White families. Our race-stratified models also showed an inverse effect of family income at birth on gang presence in the neighborhood at age 15 in White but not Black families. Conclusions: Diminished returns of family income at birth on neighborhood safety and social disorder may be a mechanism that contributes to racial health disparities in higher socioeconomic status and also poor outcomes for Black families across socioeconomic status (SES) levels. That is, a smaller protective effect of family income on changing the real lives of Black compared to White families may be one of the mechanisms by which health is worse than expected in Black families, across the entire SES spectrum. The health, behavioral, and developmental disparities are not only due to the racial gap in SES but also diminishing returns of socioeconomic status indicators such as family income for racial minorities. Research should study contextual and structural factors that reduce Black families’ ability to mobilize their human capital and secure health outcomes in urban settings.

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  • The influence of larger inequitable conditions like state-level racism does not diminish if Black families live in more advantaged neighborhoods.

    “Perhaps the influence of larger inequitable conditions like state-level racism does not diminish if Black families live in more advantaged neighborhoods.”

    From Intersections of Structural State-Level Racism and Neighborhood Deprivation on Nutrition and Obesity for Black Adolescents (2025) · cites this paper as [42]

    The Discussion and Conclusions report that higher family income offers Black families less protection from neighborhood social disorder than it offers White families, and the Implications section points to systemic disadvantage. The paper does not examine whether state-level racism has the same influence when Black families live in more advantaged neighborhoods; higher family income is not the same condition as residence in such neighborhoods. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)

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Authors
Assari, S., Boyce, S., Caldwell, C. H., Bazargan, M., & Mincy, R.
Affiliations
  • Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science (US)
  • University of Michigan (US)
  • University of California, Los Angeles (US)
  • Columbia University (US)
Corresponding author
Assari, Shervin
ORCID
Venue
Urban Science
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2020-06-24
Volume
4
Issue
2
Pages
29
ISSN
2413-8851 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/urbansci4020029
PMC
PMC7363405
OpenAlex
W3037232168
Cited by
38
References
2
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 7
FWCI
8.03
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Urban Science (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
  • National Cancer Institute (R01CA201415)
  • National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities (U54MD008149, S21MD000103, U54MD007598, R25MD007610)
  • Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD039135, R25HD074544, R01HD036916, R01HD040421)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Urban, Neighborhood, and Segregation Studies
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Crime Patterns and Interventions
  • Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
Keywords
household income, racial disparities, Black families, maternal education, neighborhood safety, social disorder, socioeconomic status, Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, race-stratified analysis, contextual factors, structural factors, child development outcomes, adolescent outcomes, health disparities, human capital theory

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