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From the Well to the Bottle: Identifying Sources of Microplastics in Mineral Water
Open accessAbstract
Microplastics (MP) have been detected in bottled mineral water across the world. Because only few MP particles have been reported in ground water-sourced drinking water, it is suspected that MP enter the water during bottle cleaning and filling. However, until today, MP entry paths were not revealed. For the first time, this study provides findings of MP from the well to the bottle including the bottle washing process. At four mineral water bottlers, five sample types were taken along the process: raw and deferrized water samples were filtered in situ; clean bottles were sampled right after they left the bottle washer and after filling and capping. Caustic cleaning solutions were sampled from bottle washers and MP particles isolated through enzymatic and chemical treatments. The samples were analyzed for eleven synthetic and natural polymer particles ≥11 µm with Fourier-transform infrared imaging and random decision forests. MP were present in all steps of mineral water bottling, with a sharp increase from <1 MP L−1 to 317 ± 257 MP L−1 attributed to bottle capping. As 81% of MP resembled the PE-based cap sealing material, abrasion from the sealings was identified as the main entry path for MP into bottled mineral water.
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“Specifically in drinking water production, plastic contamination is confirmed in every step from the well to the bottle (77).”
From Rapid single-particle chemical imaging of nanoplastics by SRS microscopy (2024) · cites this paper as [77]
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“PVC is identified to be the most abundant polymer type in raw water from microplastic analysis (77).”
From Rapid single-particle chemical imaging of nanoplastics by SRS microscopy (2024) · cites this paper as [77]
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“However, Weisser et al. (2021) showed a similar result, with a LOD of 40 MPs/L for bottled mineral water ( n = 4).”
Ghasemi, S., Parastesh, A., Ramezani, H., Padervand, M., Dawi, E. A., Hamzehlouyan, T., Labidi, A., Hajiahmadi, S., Signoretto, M., Lichtfouse, É., et al. (2024) · ACS symposium series · doi:10.1021/bk-2024-1482.ch009 · Cited by 7
Microplastic Pollutants in Biotic Systems: Environmental Impact and Remediation Techniques
Khan1, N. A., & Singh2, L. (2024) · ACS symposium series · doi:10.1021/bk-2024-1482 · Cited by 7
Boas, D. M. V., Lima, C. M. G., Margalho, L. P., Neto, D. P. A., Canales, H. D. S., Lemos, W. J. F., Ramos, A. C., Saraiva, G. P., & Sant’Ana, A. S. (2024) · Biofouling · doi:10.1080/08927014.2024.2410771 · Cited by 7
“In the mineral water production process, which involves several stages such as collecting, storing, decanting, filtering, and bottling (Wei et al. 2019; Weisser et al. 2021), the presence of PSA is a concern because of its ability to adhere to and form biofilms on various surfaces.”
From Harm to Hope: Tackling Microplastics’ Perils with Recycling Innovation
Dini, I., Mancusi, A., & Seccia, S. (2025) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules30122535 · Cited by 7
“Sunlight [99,100], the pressure and heat used during bottling operations [98], and the detergents used in washing machines that clean the bottles before filling them [101] can produce MPs. Fibers, films, fragments, and spherules from MPs of various origins can taint sugar.”
Towards the Rational Use of Plastic Packaging to Reduce Microplastic Pollution: A Mini Review
Athanasopoulou, E., Power, D. M., Flemetakis, E., & Tsironi, T. N. (2025) · Journal of Marine Science and Engineering · doi:10.3390/jmse13071245 · Cited by 7
Holographic imaging and machine learning for microplastic size and shape analysis in water
Abimbola, I., Thevar, T. M., McAfee, M., Creedon, L., Khosravi, H., & Gharbia, S. S. (2025) · Emerging contaminants · doi:10.1016/j.emcon.2025.100558 · Cited by 7
Methods for the detection and quantification of micro- and nano-plastic particles in the environment
Ilyas, A., & Webster, R. D. (2026) · TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.trac.2026.118682 · Cited by 7
Egbueri, J. C., Usman, A. G., Abba, S. I., Arunachalam, K. P., & Agbasi, J. C. (2026) · Journal of environmental chemical engineering · doi:10.1016/j.jece.2026.121431 · Cited by 7
Know What You Don’t Know: Assessment of Overlooked Microplastic Particles in FTIR Images
Weißer, J., Pohl, T., Ivleva, N. P., Hofmann, T. F., & Glas, K. (2022) · Microplastics · doi:10.3390/microplastics1030027 · Cited by 7
Self-citationOn the origin of microplastics in bottled water
Polychronopoulos, N. D., & Vlachopoulos, J. (2023) · AIP conference proceedings · doi:10.1063/5.0168577 · Cited by 9
Preliminary study on the ejection of microplastics from different types of face masks
Esmeralda, G., V, Patterson, J., & Shelciya, S. (2025) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene · doi:10.1080/15459624.2024.2443198 · Cited by 7
“Evidence of oral ingestion of MPs has been found in, honey, beer, salt, seafood, mineral water, shrimp, fish, and tinned fish (Diaz-Basantes et al. 2020; Sathish et al. 2020a, 2020b; Weisser et al. 2021).”
Microplastic transport dynamics and the path forward with magnetic nanoparticle based solutions.
Das, P., Barik, S., & Bal, M. (2025) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.125496 · Cited by 7
Theory of planned behavior to analyze students’ intentions in consuming tap water
Saefi, M., Fauzi, A., Kristiana, E., Adi, W. C., Islami, N. N., Ikhsan, M. A., Ramadhani, M., Ningrum, D. E. A. F., Setiawan, M. E., & Muchson, M. (2023) · Eurasia Journal of Mathematics Science and Technology Education · doi:10.29333/ejmste/12976 · Cited by 14
In-flow single particle detection of sub-100 micron microplastics
Paruli, E. I., Sainte-Suzanne, A. D. L., Mathieu, D., Thomas, L., Courson, R., Challier, L., Rakwe, M. E., & Prado, É. (2025) · RSC Advances · doi:10.1039/d5ra04700e · Cited by 8
Hussain, K. A., Dong, H., Tamayo-Aguilar, A., Kim, S., Peña, C. A. G., Foss, S., Fernandez-Ballester, L., Lu, Y., & Li, Y. (2026) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2026.125569 · Cited by 7
“…2022; Huan et al., 2023; Kankanige and Babel 2020; Li et al., 2022; Muhib et al., 2022; Oßmann et al., 2018; Praveena et al., 2022, Tse et al. 2022, Weisser et al., 2021, Zhou et al., 2021) across regions, including the USA, Iran, Thailand, Chile, Italy, Germany, and China (Almaiman et al., 2021;…”
Microplastics in Salt and Drinking Water
Adikari, M. U., Prasadi, N., & Jayasinghe, C. V. L. (2023) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119879534.ch21 · Cited by 6
Manono, B. O., Gichana, Z. M., Theuri, A., & Kithaka, K. M. (2026) · Pollutants · doi:10.3390/pollutants6010015 · Cited by 7
“NMP concentrations in bottled water have been noted to rise following industrial cleaning and filling processes [43].”
Parthipan, P., Sathish, V., Rajasekar, A., Vickram, A. S., Thanigaivel, S., Subbaiya, R., Karmegam, N., Kim, W., Govarthanan, M., & Kamala‐Kannan, S. (2025) · Advanced Sustainable Systems · doi:10.1002/adsu.202500143 · Cited by 5
Identification of microplastics using spectroscopic methods
Samandra, S., Alwan, W. S., Hind, A., Ellis, A. V., & Clarke, B. O. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-15779-0.00020-1 · Cited by 5
Liu, K., Han, Z., Sun, Y., Wang, C., & Xu, Y. (2025) · Microchemical Journal · doi:10.1016/j.microc.2025.114292 · Cited by 4
Application of Clay Composites for Microplastics Removal from Environment
Ahmad, M., Rasheed, H., Ahmad, J., Lubis, N. M. A., Rafique, M. I., Akanji, M. A., Al-Wabel, M. I., & Al-Farraj, A. S. F. (2023) · Advances in material research and technology · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-2544-5_18 · Cited by 4
New-Age Bioremediation Strategies to Combat Microplastic Pollution in the Environment
Shrinidhi, B., Subhobrata, P., Gangar, T., & Patra, S. (2024) · ACS symposium series · doi:10.1021/bk-2024-1482.ch008 · Cited by 6
Impacts and Mitigation Strategies of Microplastic Pollution
Islam, M. R., Roknuzzaman, A. S. M., Sarker, R., Kadir, M. F., & Kabir, E. R. (2024) · ACS symposium series · doi:10.1021/bk-2024-1482.ch007 · Cited by 5
Zarate-Bermudez, M., Casillas, G. A., Hils, J., Yeh, M., & Carroll, Y. I. (2025) · Microplastics · doi:10.3390/microplastics4030060 · Cited by 3
“Others described sampling methods, sample preparation, and analytical procedures in detail and pointed at the filling and/or the capping processes of four water bottlers as critical entry points of MPs into the water [29].”
Detection of microplastics from food and beverage packaging materials
Zhang, R., Zhang, D., Yang, R., Mao, X., Hussein, W., Yu, L., & Zhang, Z. (2026) · TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.trac.2026.118806 · Cited by 3
Microplastics Pollutants—Potential Impact on Ecosystems
Shukla, A. K., Alam, J., & Alhoshan, M. S. (2024) · ACS symposium series · doi:10.1021/bk-2024-1482.ch005 · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Weisser, J., Beer, I., Hufnagl, B., Hofmann, T., Lohninger, H., Ivleva, N. P., & Glas, K.
- Affiliations
- Technical University of Munich (DE)
- TU Wien (AT)
- Corresponding author
- Weisser, Jana
- Venue
- Water
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2021-03-19
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 841
- ISSN
- 2073-4441 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3137433286
- Cited by
- 134
- References
- 33
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 44 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 8
- FWCI
- 5.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Water (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- mediaTUM – the media and publications repository of the Technical University Munich (Technical University Munich) (submittedVersion)
- mediaTUM (Technical University of Munich) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Bayerische Forschungsstiftung (1258-16)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Microplastics and Plastic Pollution
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fecal contamination and water quality
- Keywords
- microplastics, mineral water, bottled water, abrasion, bottle washing, microplastic sources, polymer particles, Fourier transform infrared imaging, random forest
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