Occurrence of Microplastics in Tap and Bottled Water: Current Knowledge
Open accessAbstract
A narrative review was carried out to describe the current knowledge related to the occurrence of MPs in drinking water. The reviewed studies (n = 21) showed the presence of microplastics (MPs) in tap (TW) and bottled (BW) water, increasing concerns for public health due to the possible toxicity associated with their polymeric composition, additives, and other compounds or microorganism adsorbed on their surface. The MP concentration increase by decreasing particles size and was higher in BW than in TW. Among BW, reusable PET and glass bottles showed a higher MP contamination than other packages. The lower MP abundance in TW than in natural sources indicates a high removal rate of MPs in drinking water treatment plants. This evidence should encourage the consumers to drink TW instead of BW, in order to limit their exposure to MPS and produce less plastic waste. The high variability in the results makes it difficult to compare the findings of different studies and build up a general hypothesis on human health risk. A globally shared protocol is needed to harmonize results also in view of the monitoring plans for the emerging contaminants, including MPs, introduced by the new European regulation.
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Microplastics have been widely found in human foods, drinks, and product packaging, and bottled water is an important source of microplastics ingested daily.
“Microplastics have been widely found in human foods (50), drinks (51), and product packaging (52–55), among which bottled water is of particular interest for being an important source of microplastics to be ingested in daily life (56–59).”
From Rapid single-particle chemical imaging of nanoplastics by SRS microscopy (2024) · cites this paper as [57]
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Chu, X., Zheng, B., Li, Z., Cai, C., Zhu, P. Y., Zhao, P., & Tian, Y. (2021) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150004 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Where is the evidence that human exposure to microplastics is safe?
Leslie, H. A., & Depledge, M. H. (2020) · Environment International · doi:10.1016/j.envint.2020.105807 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
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Mukotaka, A., Kataoka, T., & NIHEI, Y. (2021) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148231 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
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Microplastics in Ecosystems: From Current Trends to Bio-Based Removal Strategies
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Microplastics in Surface Waters and Sediments from Guangdong Coastal Areas, South China
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A Study of Microplastic Particles in Danish Tap Water
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Communicating the absence of evidence for microplastics risk: Balancing sensation and reflection
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PET-Bottled Water Consumption in View of a Circular Economy: The Case Study of Salento (South Italy)
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Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Rapid single-particle chemical imaging of nanoplastics by SRS microscopy
Qian, N., Gao, X., Lang, X., Deng, H., Bratu, T. M., Chen, Q., Stapleton, P., Yan, B., & Min, W. (2024) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2300582121 · Cited by 467 · see citing works
Nizamali, J., Mintenig, S. M., & Koelmans, A. A. (2023) · Journal of Hazardous Materials · doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129942 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Akinwumi, I., Soladoye, O., Ajayi, V., & Epelle, P. (2022) · Infrastructures · doi:10.3390/infrastructures7120172 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
- Authors
- Gambino, I., Bagordo, F., Grassi, T., Panico, A., & De Donno, A.
- Affiliations
- University of Salento (IT)
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science and Technology, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy
- Corresponding author
- Grassi, Tiziana
- Venue
- International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2022-04-26
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 5283
- ISSN
- 1660-4601 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC9103198
- OpenAlex
- W4224988818
- Cited by
- 213
- References
- 107
- Citations by year
- 2026: 40 · 2025: 64 · 2024: 72 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 8
- FWCI
- 2.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- AIRUS (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- CINECA IRIS Institutional Research Information System (University of Bari Aldo Moro) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Microplastics and Plastic Pollution
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fecal contamination and water quality
- Keywords
- microplastics, tap water, bottled water, drinking water contamination, plastic packaging, PET bottles, glass bottles, particle size, drinking water treatment, human health risk, emerging contaminants, plastic waste reduction, analytical method harmonization
- MeSH terms
- Microplastics, Environmental Monitoring, Humans, Plastics, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Drinking Water
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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