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Cited by 0Linguistics and language evolutionAncient Near East HistoryClassical Studies and Philology

From Iranian to Greek via Aramaic: A Proposal for 'odrogos' (Metropolis, Ionia)

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Obrador-cursach, Bartomeu, Corral Varela, Diego·2025·Gephyra
DOI 10.37095/gephyra.1580661
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Abstract

The term odrogos designates some kind of office associated with to the cults of Ares and Zeus Krezimos in the city of Metropolis (Ionia) from the Hellenistic period to the 2nd century CE, although its origin has so far eluded identification. This paper presents a first linguistic analysis of the term, arguing for an Iranian etymology *ādranga-. The phonetic differences observed suggest that the loan did not pass directly into Greek. Instead, it likely entered Greek through Aramaic, where several forms related to the same Iranian etymon are attested. Based on this new identification, some proposals are offered as to its function and the time of its adoption. Thus, the hypothesis defended here is that the figure of the odrogos is related to the practice, reasonably well known in Asia Minor, of the purchase of priesthoods. The conjunction of all the preceding data, including the term’s attestations and proposed linguistic analysis, makes it feasible to place the contact scenario within the period of Seleucid control over Ionia.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

The paper proposes that the Metropolis (Ionia) cult title οδρογος derives from Iranian *ādranga- and entered Greek through Aramaic rather than directly from Iranian. It further suggests the office functioned as a “guarantor” tied to the sale of priesthoods, with adoption plausibly placed in the period of Seleucid control over Ionia.

Key findings

  • οδρογος, an office associated with the cults of Ares and Zeus Krezimos at Metropolis, is argued to reflect Iranian *ādranga- via Aramaic mediation; direct Old Persian-to-Greek transmission is judged phonetically difficult.
  • The term is attested in about thirty inscriptions, with up to 25 attestations, always in the same position after priest, priestess, and attendants; syntactic evidence with conjunctions supports interpreting it as a title rather than a personal name.
  • *ādranga- is recovered from three Aramaic sources: Official Aramaic texts from Egypt (ʔdrng five times in four texts from the archive of ʕănanyāh, ca. 400 BCE), Aramaic documents from Achaemenid Bactria (two occurrences), and Biblical Aramaic ʔăḏargāzəray·yā in Dan. 3:2 and 3:3.
  • The proposed function is “guarantor,” linked to the well-attested practice of purchasing priesthoods; the contact scenario is placed within Seleucid control of Ionia (281–188 BCE).

Methods

  • Linguistic and etymological analysis of οδρογος, comparing Greek, Anatolian, Iranian, and Aramaic data; the Metropolis epigraphic corpus (EDEN) is central, with about thirty inscriptions and up to 25 attestations.
  • The authors first establish the term’s noun class as a title, then reconstruct a phonetic path from Iranian *ādranga- through Western Aramaic (including assimilation of n- and a > ɔ/o) into Greek οδρογος.
  • Historical contextualization uses comparative epigraphic evidence for priesthood sales, including the Hyllarima Carian-Greek bilingual inscription (196 BCE), Erythrai 60 (300–260 BCE), and I.Milet 14 (141–15 CE).

Limitations

  • Stated: the inscriptions provide no explicit information about the office’s functions; Dreyer’s comparison with Ephesian hierophants is “not based on positive data.” The etymology is presented as a first proposal, and the exact meaning of the Bactrian passage is uncertain, though the authors say discarding it would not change the core argument.
  • Stated: “much information is still missing,” and the new Seleucid-origin hypothesis is not entirely exclusive of older views on Ares’s presence at Metropolis.
  • Evident from the text: *ādranga- is not directly attested in Old Persian but reconstructed; no Aramaic inscriptions are documented at Metropolis itself, the closest being in Lydia; and the Metropolis lists lack the payment accounts found in some priesthood-sale corpora.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.37095/gephyra.1580661

Cites

51 of 51 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

2 of 32 cited sources checked · 1 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Findingnone given
    § 2. In search of an etymology: Anatolian and Greek (no) data · p. 4

    The word οδρογος lacks any features that could link it to Greek.

    “the word lacks any features that could link it to Greek”
    • Also stated in: § 2. In search of an etymology: Anatolian and Greek (no) data · p. 4 · boosted
      “Attempts to interpret it within the framework of Greek have proven unproductive.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § 1.1. οδρογος in its setting · p. 2

    In the Metropolis inscriptions, οδρογος appears after the priest, priestess, and attendants, always in the same order.

    “after the identification of the priest (ἱερεύς), followed by a priestess (ἱέρεια) and attendants (διάκονοι), there appears, always in the same order, an unparalleled title, οδρογος.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingnone given
    § 1.2. οδρογος' noun class: patterns and distribution · p. 4

    In many Metropolis inscriptions, except for the priest, personal names typically consist of a single component followed by a patronymic.

    “in many inscriptions, with the exception of the priest (ἱερεύς), personal names typically consist of a single component, usually followed by a patronymic.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § 3.1. * ādranga 's attestations in the Aramaic corpora · p. 7

    In the Bactrian Aramaic texts, ʔdrng occurs twice in connection with Bagavant, a paḥtā or governor.

    “we find two occurrences of the term ʔ drng in connection with Bagavant, a pa ḥ tā or 'governor'.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § 1.2. οδρογος' noun class: patterns and distribution · p. 4

    In certain Metropolis inscriptions, the presence of a conjunction allows οδρογος to be excluded from the preceding list, often that of the διάκονοι.

    “the presence of a conjunction allows us to exclude odrogos from the preceding list, often that of the διάκονοι”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 9
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 15

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 3.2. A possible contact scenario (i): the linguistic adaptation · p. 11

    Iranian *ādranga- undergoes assimilation of n- in Aramaic, a phenomenon documented since Old Aramaic and present everywhere in Official Aramaic.

    “The first change that Iranian * ādranga - undergoes in Aramaic is the already mentioned assimilation of n -, a phenomenon well documented since Old Aramaic and present everywhere in Official Aramaic”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Folmer 2011 source

      Section 3.2, “Consonants” (page unavailable), describes assimilation of syllable-final */n/ before a consonant in Old Aramaic and says the evidence strongly suggests it was also assimilated in Imperial Aramaic. The passages do not identify Iranian *ādranga- or establish that this particular loanword underwent the change, and they do not document the phenomenon in every Official Aramaic setting. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § 3.2. A possible contact scenario (i): the linguistic adaptation · p. 11

    Kantor has shown that the Hexaplaric Secunda is compatible with [ɔ].

    “Also B. P. Kantor has shown that the Hexaplaric Secunda is compatible with [ ɔ ]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kantor 2017 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given
    § 1.2. οδρογος' noun class: patterns and distribution · p. 4

    οδρογος appears exclusively within the corpus of Metropolis and specifically within the cult of Ares and Zeus Krezimos, with up to 25 attestations.

    “odrogos appears exclusively within the corpus of this city and specifically within the cult of Ares and Zeus Krezimos, with up to 25 attestations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given
    § 1.1. οδρογος in its setting · p. 2

    About thirty inscriptions attest οδρογος.

    “There are about thirty inscriptions 6 attesting οδρογος”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 3. Another perspective: from Iranian * ādranga - to Greek οδρογος (via Aramaic) · p. 6

    *ādranga- derives from the root *dra(n)ǰ- 'to fix, fasten, hold', with the component ham-, going back to PIE *dregh-.

    “It derives from the root * dra(n) ǰ -('to fix, fasten, hold'), according to an initial proposal by Bernhard Geiger (apud Kraeling 1953, 243), with the component ham-, 21 which in turn goes back to Proto-Indo-European root * dreg h -'to hold, fasten' ( LIV 2 126).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kraeling 1953

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites LIV 2 126

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § 3.2. A possible contact scenario (i): the linguistic adaptation · p. 9

    A loanword directly from Old Persian to Greek would be difficult to defend in phonetic terms.

    “as far as we know, a loanword directly from Old Persian to Greek would be difficult to defend in phonetic terms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 2. In search of an etymology: Anatolian and Greek (no) data · p. 4

    The consistency in spelling across all known attestations of οδρογος excludes the possibility of a scribal error and its equivalence with Δρόσος.

    “the consistency in spelling across all known attestations of οδρογος categorically excludes the possibility of a scribal error, and thus its equivalence with Δρόσος.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 3.2. A possible contact scenario (i): the linguistic adaptation · p. 10

    Σαβίων is a hypocoristic of the name Σαμβατίων / Σαββατίων, which ultimately comes from the Hebrew anthroponym Šabəṯay, related to the Sabbath.

    “Σαβίων is a hypocoristic of the name Σαμβατίων / Σαββατίων which ultimately comes from the Hebrew anthroponym ַ י שׁ ַ בּ ְ ת Šab ə ṯ ay , related to the Sabbath”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Levinskaya - Tokjtas'yev 1996

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 3. Another perspective: from Iranian * ādranga - to Greek οδρογος (via Aramaic) · p. 5

    Aramaic was present in Anatolia during the Achaemenid period and for several centuries after.

    “The presence of Aramaic in Anatolia during this period is well known: inscriptions in Official Achaemenid Aramaic were found in Saraydın ( KAI 261), Gözne, Meydancıkkale, Kesecek Köyü, Hemite, Bahadirli, Hedioren, Yukari Bozkuyu, Göller, Kumkulluk (Cilicia), Agaça Kale (Cappadocia, a bilingual inscription), Xanthos (including the outstanding trilingual inscription and a bilingual fragment), Limyra”
    • Also stated in: § 3. Another perspective: from Iranian * ādranga - to Greek οδρογος (via Aramaic) · p. 5 · plain
      “The presence of this language lasted for several centuries.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites KAI 261

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § 3.1. * ādranga 's attestations in the Aramaic corpora · p. 6

    ʔdrng is equivalent to the Aramaic term ʕrb 'guarantor'.

    “B. Porten and J. C. Greenfield identified ʔ drng as an equivalent of the Aramaic term ʕ rb 'guarantor'”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Porten - Greenfield 1969

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given
    § 3.2. A possible contact scenario (i): the linguistic adaptation · p. 10

    The Greek noun παράδεισος 'garden, park' is well-known after Xenophon in literary Greek sources, but its epigraphic use before the Christian era is almost reduced to eastern Anatolia.

    “This last noun is well-known after Xenophon in literary Greek sources. However, its epigraphic use before the Christian era is almost reduced to eastern Anatolia.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Bartomeu OBRADOR-CURSACH - Diego CORRAL VARELA ∗ · p. 1

    The figure of the odrogos is related to the practice of the purchase of priesthoods.

    “the hypothesis defended here is that the figure of the odrogos is related to the practice, reasonably well known in Asia Minor, of the purchase of priesthoods.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The purchase of priesthoods was a practice reasonably well known in Asia Minor.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given
    § 3.2. A possible contact scenario (i): the linguistic adaptation · p. 9

    The letter from Darius I to Gadatas is believed by most authors to be based on an Aramaic original.

    “the letter appears to be a Koine rewrite of an earlier Ionian text which most authors believe to be an Aramaic original.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 3.3. A possible contact scenario (ii): cultural and historical context · p. 12

    The phonetic approach indicates that οδρογος entered the local lexicon during the Hellenistic period and is not an ancient relic of a pre-Greek culture.

    “since the phonetic approach impels us to assume that οδρογος must have entered the local lexicon during the Hellenistic period, and it is not an ancient relic of a pre-Greek culture”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Farsçadan Aramice Aracılığıyla Yunancaya: 'Odrogos' (Metropolis, Ionia) İçin Bir Öneri Özet · p. 18

    The hypothesis defended is that the οδρογος figure is related to the practice of buying priesthoods well known in Asia Minor.

    “burada savunulan hipotez odrogos figürünün Küçük Asya'da oldukça iyi bilinen rahiplik satın alma uygulamasıyla ilişkili olduğudur.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The term οδρογος designates an office (a magistracy) in Metropolis (Ionia).

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 3.3. A possible contact scenario (ii): cultural and historical context · p. 12

    A possible context for the adoption of the word by the Metropolitan Ionians is the Seleucid control of the area (281-188 BCE).

    “a possible answer can be found in the Seleucid control of the area (281-188 BCE)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation
    § 3.2. A possible contact scenario (i): the linguistic adaptation · p. 11

    The stress may have lengthened the vowel, yielding an intermediate state *ādrāga or even *ādrāgā, with morphological levelling.

    “the stress may have lengthened the vowel, as in the reading tradition of Biblical Aramaic, 64 obtaining an intermediate state * ādrāga or even * ādrāgā , with morphological levelling.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § 3.2. A possible contact scenario (i): the linguistic adaptation · p. 11

    Suchard pinpointed the emergence of this reading tradition in Roman Palestine in the first century CE.

    “Benjamin Suchard's excellent recent study has succeeded in pinpointing the emergence of this reading tradition in Roman Palestine in the first century CE.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Suchard 2021

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 5. By way of conclusion: the linguistic history of οδρογος and its implications for the study of the cult of Ares in Metropolis · p. 14

    The Seleucid religious policy could explain why this word appears in a territory where no Aramaic inscriptions have been documented.

    “The Seleucid religious policy could explain why this word appears in a territory where no Aramaic inscriptions have been documented (the closest ones being those of Lydia), as the cult itself would have originated following a religious tradition foreign to Ionia.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 5. By way of conclusion: the linguistic history of οδρογος and its implications for the study of the cult of Ares in Metropolis · p. 14

    If οδρογος is a word of Persian origin transmitted via Aramaic in Hellenistic times, the worship dedicated to Ares in Metropolis should perhaps also be dated to this period.

    “if we accept that οδρογος is a word of Persian origin transmitted via Aramaic in Hellenistic times, as indicated by its phonetics, perhaps we should also date the worship dedicated to Ares to this period.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § 4. The office: a proposal for οδρογος' functions and parallels · p. 12

    Within the associations of Τεμενεῖται there appears an office of χρυσονόμος, which has been interpreted as a treasurer.

    “Within the associations of Τεμενεῖται, for example, there appears an office of χρυσονόμος (lit. 'gold-distributor') which, apart from existing in Miletus, is only documented in Leros, precisely a Milesian colony; therefore, without too much trouble, the χρυσονόμος has been interpreted as a treasurer.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Herrmann 1980

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

21 of 21

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The purchase of priesthoods was a practice reasonably well known in Asia Minor.

    “the practice, reasonably well known in Asia Minor, of the purchase of priesthoods.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The term οδρογος designates an office (a magistracy) in Metropolis (Ionia).

    “Odrogos terimi, Hellenistik dönemden MS 2. yüzyıla kadar Metropolis (Ionia) kentinde Ares ve Zeus Krezimos kültleriyle ilişkili bir tür makamı tanımlar”
2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

11 of the 62 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 13

  1. Daniels, T. E. 1997. “Classical Syriac phonology.” In: A. S. Kaye (ed.), Phonologies of Asia and Africa. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 127-140.
  2. EDEN = Dreyer, B. (ed.), EDEN. Epigraphische Datenbank Erlangen Nürnberg (Abteilung 1: Die Inschriften von Metropolis). Available at: <http://wisski.cs.fau.de/eden/metropolis> (last consult: 02/03/2022).
  3. Greenfield, J. C. 1986. “Iranian Loanwords in Early Aramaic.” In: E. Yarshater (ed.), Encyclopædia Iranica 2. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 256-259.
  4. Gruen, E. S. 2004. Diaspora. Jews amidst Greeks and Romans. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
  5. Kraeling, E. G. 1953. The Brooklyn Museum Aramaic Papyri. New Haven: Yale University Press.
  6. Lemaire, A. 2014. “Anatolia.” In: H. Niehr (ed.), The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria. Leiden: Brill, 319-328.
  7. MacKenzie, D. N. 1986. A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary. London: Oxford University Press.
  8. I.Milet = Herrmann, P. 1998 – 2006. Inschriften von Milet. Berlin: De Gruyter.
  9. Schwiderski, D. 2004. Die alt- und reichsaramäischen Inschriften. Berlin: De Gruyter.
  10. Sponsel, Ch. 2017. Der Areskult in Metropolis (Ionien). Erlangen: Friedrich-Alexander University Press.
  11. TAD A = Porten, B. – Yardeni, A. 1986. Textbook of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt, vol. 1. Jerusalem: The Hebrew University.
  12. TAD B = Porten, B. –Yardeni, A. 1989. Textbook of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt, vol. 2. Jerusalem: The Hebrew University.
  13. XHev/Se = Cotton, H.M. –Yardeni, A. 1997. Aramaic, Hebrew and Greek Documentary Texts from Haḥal Ḥever and other sites. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Related

Authors
Obrador-cursach, B., & Corral Varela, D.
Affiliations
  • Institut d'Estudis del Pròxim Orient Antic
  • Universidad de Salamanca
ORCID
Venue
Gephyra
Publisher
Akdeniz University
Published
2025-05-11
Volume
29
Pages
9-26
ISSN
1309-3924 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.37095/gephyra.1580661
OpenAlex
W4410274653
Semantic Scholar
c7c112e9dce44b41109daefa4d3e75aed8c15fa9
Cited by
0
References
62
FWCI
0.00
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by-nc-sa
Locations
  • Gephyra (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
  • DergiPark (Istanbul University) (submittedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › Linguistics and language evolution
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology › Ancient Near East History
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › Classical Studies and Philology
Keywords
Aramaic loanwords, Greek lexicon, priesthood, Seleucid period, Hellenistic religion, Anatolia

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