Spacing enhances the learning of natural concepts: an investigation of mechanisms, metacognition, and aging
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In two experiments, we examined spacing effects on the learning of bird families and metacognitive assessments of such learning. Results revealed that spacing enhanced learning beyond massed study. These effects were increased by presenting birds in pairs so as to highlight differences among families during study (Experiment 1). Self-allocated study time provided evidence that more attention was paid during spaced than during massed study and resulted in no age differences in learning (Experiment 2). Metacognitive measures revealed sensitivity to the processing advantage of spaced study and to differences in classification difficulty across categories. No difference occurred in monitoring accuracy for young versus older adults. These findings provide evidence for discrimination- and attention-based accounts of the spacing effect in natural concept learning.
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Even when interleaving helps, it may seem counterproductive: most participants here and in prior studies judged blocked study as more effective.
“Importantly, however, even when interleaving is beneficial, it may seem counterproductive: The great majority of the participants in the present study, as well as those in prior studies (Kornell & Bjork, 2008;Kornell et al., 2010;Wahlheim et al., 2011;Zulkiply et al., 2012), judged that they had learned more effectively with blocked than with interleaved study.”
From Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval (2013) · cites this paper as Wahlheim et al., 2011
The paper reports that a majority in Kornell et al. (2010) judged massed study more effective on posttest questionnaires. But Wahlheim et al.’s own Experiment 1 found category-learning judgments higher for spaced than massed study, so it does not support the claim that its participants predominantly judged blocked study more effective. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAn interleaving effect was found, and simultaneous presentation of examples did not have an effect.
“Interleaving effect found; simultaneous presentation of examples did not have an effect.”
From A systematic review of interleaving as a concept learning strategy (2021) · cites this paper as Wahlheim et al. (2011)
Experiment 1’s Results and discussion report better classification after spaced than massed study and no overall difference between individually presented and paired examples. But they also report a significant interaction: spacing benefited classification in the paired group but not the singles group. Thus, saying simultaneous presentation had no effect omits an important qualification; Experiment 2 did not find the pairing benefit. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredParticipants were better able to recognise different bird species in pairs (Wahlheim et al., 2011a, b).
“Participants were better able to recognise different bird species in pairs.”
From Spacing and Interleaving Effects Require Distinct Theoretical Bases: a Systematic Review Testing the Cognitive Load and Discriminative-Contrast Hypotheses (2021) · cites this paper as Wahlheim et al. (2011a, b)
Experiment 1 Results and discussion (page unavailable) report that studying birds in pairs helped participants discriminate among bird families under spaced study, but the singles and pairs groups did not differ overall for novel birds. The General discussion (page unavailable) says the pairing benefit was not found for younger adults in Experiment 2. The claim overgeneralizes these conditional findings and calls family classification recognition of species. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredWahlheim et al. (2011) found that simultaneous presentation of different categories benefited inductive learning.
“Wahlheim et al. (2011) also found benefits of simultaneous presentation of different categories for inductive learning.”
From Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval (2013) · cites this paper as Wahlheim et al. (2011)
The results of Experiment 1 supported the discriminative-contrast hypothesis: interrupting discrimination processing by inserting trivia questions between interleaved exemplars impaired inductive learning.
“The results were consistent with prior studies (Kang & Pashler, 2012;Wahlheim et al., 2011) in supporting the discriminative-contrast hypothesis: Interrupting discrimination processing, which was accomplished in the present experiment by inserting trivia questions between interleaved exemplars, impaired inductive learning, whereas interleaved order, the bottom row depicts four Fieldfare exemplars.”
From Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval (2013) · cites this paper as Wahlheim et al., 2011
Wahlheim et al. (2011) found some evidence of reduced attention being paid to later items in blocked conditions.
“there was some evidence of reduced attention being paid to later items in the blocked conditions.”
From A systematic review of interleaving as a concept learning strategy (2021) · cites this paper as Wahlheim et al. (2011)
The attention-attenuation hypothesis suggests that blocking is inferior because attention dwindles when learners see repeated examples of the same type.
“The attention-attenuation hypothesis (Wahlheim, Dunlosky, and Jacoby, 2011) suggests that blocking is inferior because attention dwindles when learners see repeated examples of the same type”
From A systematic review of interleaving as a concept learning strategy (2021) · cites this paper as Wahlheim, Dunlosky, and Jacoby, 2011
A self-paced version of the experiment showed evidence of reduced attention on later trials.
“Self-paced version of Expt 1, showed evidence of reduced attention on later trials.”
From A systematic review of interleaving as a concept learning strategy (2021) · cites this paper as Wahlheim et al. (2011)
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- Authors
- Wahlheim, C. N., Dunlosky, J., & Jacoby, L. L.
- Affiliations
- Washington University in St. Louis (US)
- Kent State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Wahlheim, Christopher N.
- Venue
- Memory & Cognition
- Published
- 2011-01-07
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 750-763
- ISSN
- 0090-502X (ISSN-L)
- 1532-5946
- PMC
- PMC3085105
- OpenAlex
- W2159313072
- Cited by
- 172
- References
- 23
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 6.12
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Memory & Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- NC Digital Online Collection of Knowledge and Scholarship (The University of North Carolina at Greensboro) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- James S. McDonnell Foundation
- National Institute on Aging (T32AG000030)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- spacing effect, bird families, metacognition, aging, attention, discrimination learning, monitoring accuracy
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Aging, Animals, Association Learning, Attention, Concept Formation, Discrimination Learning, Female, Humans, Judgment, Male, Middle Aged, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Practice, Psychological, Mental Recall, Passeriformes
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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