The DOI matches its Crossref record; 23 of the 23 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Spacing enhances the learning of natural concepts: an investigation of mechanisms, metacognition, and aging
Open accessAbstract
In two experiments, we examined spacing effects on the learning of bird families and metacognitive assessments of such learning. Results revealed that spacing enhanced learning beyond massed study. These effects were increased by presenting birds in pairs so as to highlight differences among families during study (Experiment 1). Self-allocated study time provided evidence that more attention was paid during spaced than during massed study and resulted in no age differences in learning (Experiment 2). Metacognitive measures revealed sensitivity to the processing advantage of spaced study and to differences in classification difficulty across categories. No difference occurred in monitoring accuracy for young versus older adults. These findings provide evidence for discrimination- and attention-based accounts of the spacing effect in natural concept learning.
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“Importantly, however, even when interleaving is beneficial, it may seem counterproductive: The great majority of the participants in the present study, as well as those in prior studies (Kornell & Bjork, 2008;Kornell et al., 2010;Wahlheim et al., 2011;Zulkiply et al., 2012), judged that they had learned more effectively with blocked than with interleaved study.”
From Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval (2013) · cites this paper as Wahlheim et al., 2011
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Interleaving effect found; simultaneous presentation of examples did not have an effect.”
From A systematic review of interleaving as a concept learning strategy (2021) · cites this paper as Wahlheim et al. (2011)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“Participants were better able to recognise different bird species in pairs.”
From Spacing and Interleaving Effects Require Distinct Theoretical Bases: a Systematic Review Testing the Cognitive Load and Discriminative-Contrast Hypotheses (2021) · cites this paper as Wahlheim et al. (2011a, b)
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“Wahlheim et al. (2011) also found benefits of simultaneous presentation of different categories for inductive learning.”
From Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval (2013) · cites this paper as Wahlheim et al. (2011)
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“The results were consistent with prior studies (Kang & Pashler, 2012;Wahlheim et al., 2011) in supporting the discriminative-contrast hypothesis: Interrupting discrimination processing, which was accomplished in the present experiment by inserting trivia questions between interleaved exemplars, impaired inductive learning, whereas interleaved order, the bottom row depicts four Fieldfare exemplars.”
From Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval (2013) · cites this paper as Wahlheim et al., 2011
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“there was some evidence of reduced attention being paid to later items in the blocked conditions.”
From A systematic review of interleaving as a concept learning strategy (2021) · cites this paper as Wahlheim et al. (2011)
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“The attention-attenuation hypothesis (Wahlheim, Dunlosky, and Jacoby, 2011) suggests that blocking is inferior because attention dwindles when learners see repeated examples of the same type”
From A systematic review of interleaving as a concept learning strategy (2021) · cites this paper as Wahlheim, Dunlosky, and Jacoby, 2011
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“Self-paced version of Expt 1, showed evidence of reduced attention on later trials.”
From A systematic review of interleaving as a concept learning strategy (2021) · cites this paper as Wahlheim et al. (2011)
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Citations
Cites
The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition
Salthouse, T. A. (1996) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.103.3.403 · Cited by 5,902 · cited 2×
“Older adults typically show slower processing speed, as compared with young adults (e.g., Salthouse, 1996 ), and there are typically no age differences in metacognitive monitoring.”
Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis.
Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.354 · Cited by 1,888 · cited 2×
“This pattern of results was confirmed by a significant study × position interaction, F(5, 230) = 3.”
A comparison of current measures of the accuracy of feeling-of-knowing predictions
Nelson, T. O. (1984) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.95.1.109 · Cited by 976
Learning Concepts and Categories: Is Spacing the “Enemy of Induction”?
Kornell, N., & Bjork, R. A. (2008) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02127.x · Cited by 602
The Psychology of Learning and Motivation
(2009) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/c2009-0-01769-3 · Cited by 341
Allocation of self-paced study time and the "labor-in-vain effect."
Nelson, T. O., & Leonesio, R. J. (1988) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.14.4.676 · Cited by 332
Memory for grocery prices in younger and older adults: The role of schematic support.
Castel, A. D. (2005) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.20.4.718 · Cited by 291
Distributing and Managing the Conditions of Encoding and Practice
Dempster, F. N. (1996) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012102570-0/50011-2 · Cited by 244
Dunlosky, J. T., & Hertzog, C. K. (2001) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03194918 · Cited by 215
Self-citationCastel, A. D. (2007) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(07)48006-9 · Cited by 192
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100612453266 · Cited by 3,138
Self-citationSelf-Regulated Learning: Beliefs, Techniques, and Illusions
Bjork, R. A., Dunlosky, J., & Kornell, N. (2013) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143823 · Cited by 1,468
Self-citationWhy interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval
Birnbaum, M. S., Kornell, N., Bjork, E. L., & Bjork, R. A. (2013) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-012-0272-7 · Cited by 278
Interleaving Helps Students Distinguish among Similar Concepts
Rohrer, D. (2012) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-012-9201-3 · Cited by 237
The science of effective learning with spacing and retrieval practice
Carpenter, S. K., Pan, S. C., & Butler, A. C. (2022) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-022-00089-1 · Cited by 184
Metadata
- Authors
- Wahlheim, C. N., Dunlosky, J., & Jacoby, L. L.
- Affiliations
- Washington University in St. Louis (US)
- Kent State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Wahlheim, Christopher N.
- Venue
- Memory & Cognition
- Published
- 2011-01-07
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 750-763
- ISSN
- 0090-502X (ISSN-L)
- 1532-5946
- PMC
- PMC3085105
- OpenAlex
- W2159313072
- Cited by
- 172
- References
- 23
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 6.12
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Memory & Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- NC Digital Online Collection of Knowledge and Scholarship (The University of North Carolina at Greensboro) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- James S. McDonnell Foundation
- National Institute on Aging (T32AG000030)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- spacing effect, bird families, metacognition, aging, attention, discrimination learning, monitoring accuracy
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Aging, Animals, Association Learning, Attention, Concept Formation, Discrimination Learning, Female, Humans, Judgment, Male, Middle Aged, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Practice, Psychological, Mental Recall, Passeriformes
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