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Active and passive contributions to spatial learning
Open accessAbstract
It seems intuitively obvious that active exploration of a new environment will lead to better spatial learning than will passive exposure. However, the literature on this issue is decidedly mixed-in part, because the concept itself is not well defined. We identify five potential components of active spatial learning and review the evidence regarding their role in the acquisition of landmark, route, and survey knowledge. We find that (1) idiothetic information in walking contributes to metric survey knowledge, (2) there is little evidence as yet that decision making during exploration contributes to route or survey knowledge, (3) attention to place-action associations and relevant spatial relations contributes to route and survey knowledge, although landmarks and boundaries appear to be learned without effort, (4) route and survey information are differentially encoded in subunits of working memory, and (5) there is preliminary evidence that mental manipulation of such properties facilitates spatial learning. Idiothetic information appears to be necessary to reveal the influence of attention and, possibly, decision making in survey learning, which may explain the mixed results in desktop virtual reality. Thus, there is indeed an active advantage in spatial learning, which manifests itself in the task-dependent acquisition of route and survey knowledge.
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“The negative effects of mobile maps are primarily attributed to changes in wayfinders’ visual behavior (Gardony et al., 2013, 2015; Hejtmánek et al., 2018) and to users entering a passive navigation state where the task of navigation is delegated to the map aid (Chrastil & Warren, 2012; Ishikawa, 2019; Willis et al., 2009).”
From The influence of landmark visualization style on task performance, visual attention, and spatial learning in a real-world navigation task (2024) · cites this paper as Chrastil & Warren, 2012
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Put simply, looking at irrelevant information is associated with poorer spatial knowledge development, whilst engagement with relevant information is better for spatial learning (Chrastil & Warren, 2012; Gardony et al., 2013, 2015; Hejtmánek et al., 2018; Willis et al., 2009).”
From The influence of landmark visualization style on task performance, visual attention, and spatial learning in a real-world navigation task (2024) · cites this paper as Chrastil & Warren, 2012
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Consequently, the rate of spatial knowledge acquisition declines as the mobile map aid reduces the allocation of attentional resources to task-relevant environmental features that are important for spatial learning (Chrastil & Warren, 2012; Gardony et al., 2013, 2015; Hejtmánek et al., 2018; Willis et al., 2009).”
From The influence of landmark visualization style on task performance, visual attention, and spatial learning in a real-world navigation task (2024) · cites this paper as Chrastil & Warren, 2012
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“The lack of direct influence of landmark visualization styles on spatial learning measures can be attributed to the fact that depicting landmarks as 3D building models in both conditions on the mobile map could have provided the necessary visual information to facilitate the basic spatial learning required to solve the navigation task (Chrastil & Warren, 2012; Elias & Paelke, 2008; Kapaj et al., 2”
From The influence of landmark visualization style on task performance, visual attention, and spatial learning in a real-world navigation task (2024) · cites this paper as Chrastil & Warren, 2012
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“Previous research has shown that when wayfinders are informed that their environmental knowledge will be tested, they exhibit different spatial learning strategies and visual attention behavior as opposed to when they are not made aware of upcoming assessments (Chrastil & Warren, 2012; Van Asselen et al., 2006; Wenczel et al., 2017).”
From The influence of landmark visualization style on task performance, visual attention, and spatial learning in a real-world navigation task (2024) · cites this paper as Chrastil & Warren, 2012
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“These results indicate that successful navigation is predicted by the ability to attend to relevant landmarks (Chrastil & Warren, 2012; Hamid et al., 2010) and align with previous findings showing that visually salient features improve participants’ spatial memory (Denis et al., 2014; Fine & Minnery, 2009; Keil et al., 2020).”
From The influence of landmark visualization style on task performance, visual attention, and spatial learning in a real-world navigation task (2024) · cites this paper as Chrastil & Warren, 2012
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Metadata
- Authors
- Chrastil, E. R., & Warren, W. H.
- Affiliations
- Brown University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Chrastil, Elizabeth R.
- Venue
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
- Published
- 2011-11-15
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-23
- ISSN
- 1069-9384 (ISSN-L)
- 1531-5320
- OpenAlex
- W2060498941
- Cited by
- 261
- References
- 120
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 26 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 33 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 17 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 4.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Spatial Cognition and Navigation
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Geography, Planning and Development › Geography Education and Pedagogy
- Keywords
- spatial learning, active exploration, passive exposure, landmark learning, route learning, survey knowledge, working memory, attention, decision-making, virtual reality, spatial relations
- MeSH terms
- Attention, Decision Making, Exploratory Behavior, Humans, Learning, Spatial Behavior, Problem-Based Learning
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