Active and passive contributions to spatial learning

Chrastil, Elizabeth R.; Warren, William H.

doi:10.3758/s13423-011-0182-x

Cited by 261Spatial Cognition and NavigationMemory and Neural MechanismsGeography Education and Pedagogy

Active and passive contributions to spatial learning

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Chrastil, Elizabeth R., Warren, William H.·2012·Psychonomic Bulletin & Review

DOI 10.3758/s13423-011-0182-x

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Abstract

It seems intuitively obvious that active exploration of a new environment will lead to better spatial learning than will passive exposure. However, the literature on this issue is decidedly mixed-in part, because the concept itself is not well defined. We identify five potential components of active spatial learning and review the evidence regarding their role in the acquisition of landmark, route, and survey knowledge. We find that (1) idiothetic information in walking contributes to metric survey knowledge, (2) there is little evidence as yet that decision making during exploration contributes to route or survey knowledge, (3) attention to place-action associations and relevant spatial relations contributes to route and survey knowledge, although landmarks and boundaries appear to be learned without effort, (4) route and survey information are differentially encoded in subunits of working memory, and (5) there is preliminary evidence that mental manipulation of such properties facilitates spatial learning. Idiothetic information appears to be necessary to reveal the influence of attention and, possibly, decision making in survey learning, which may explain the mixed results in desktop virtual reality. Thus, there is indeed an active advantage in spatial learning, which manifests itself in the task-dependent acquisition of route and survey knowledge.

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The negative effects of mobile maps are primarily attributed to changes in wayfinders' visual behavior and to users entering a passive navigation state where navigation is delegated to the map aid.
“The negative effects of mobile maps are primarily attributed to changes in wayfinders’ visual behavior (Gardony et al., 2013, 2015; Hejtmánek et al., 2018) and to users entering a passive navigation state where the task of navigation is delegated to the map aid (Chrastil & Warren, 2012; Ishikawa, 2019; Willis et al., 2009).”
From The influence of landmark visualization style on task performance, visual attention, and spatial learning in a real-world navigation task (2024) · cites this paper as Chrastil & Warren, 2012
The Components of active learning section (page unavailable) distinguishes making route decisions from following a prescribed route and suggests that the two may direct attention differently. But the Conclusions and future directions section says evidence for a decision-making advantage is small and unreliable. The paper does not establish that mobile maps cause a passive navigation state or that delegation to a map aid is a primary cause of their negative effects; the visual-behavior clause is cited to other sources. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Looking at irrelevant information is associated with poorer spatial knowledge development, whilst engagement with relevant information is better for spatial learning.
“Put simply, looking at irrelevant information is associated with poorer spatial knowledge development, whilst engagement with relevant information is better for spatial learning (Chrastil & Warren, 2012; Gardony et al., 2013, 2015; Hejtmánek et al., 2018; Willis et al., 2009).”
From The influence of landmark visualization style on task performance, visual attention, and spatial learning in a real-world navigation task (2024) · cites this paper as Chrastil & Warren, 2012
The paper’s ‘Differential attention to environmental properties’ section (page unavailable) reports that attending to landmarks at the expense of turns can impair route learning, supporting the claim that attention to less relevant information can hinder some spatial learning. But ‘Idiothetic information during walking’ (page unavailable) reports no consistent effect of attending to spatial layout rather than objects across spatial tests. The source therefore does not support the sentence’s general claim that looking at irrelevant information worsens spatial knowledge while engagement with relevant information improves it. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The rate of spatial knowledge acquisition declines as the mobile map aid reduces the allocation of attentional resources to task-relevant environmental features important for spatial learning.
“Consequently, the rate of spatial knowledge acquisition declines as the mobile map aid reduces the allocation of attentional resources to task-relevant environmental features that are important for spatial learning (Chrastil & Warren, 2012; Gardony et al., 2013, 2015; Hejtmánek et al., 2018; Willis et al., 2009).”
From The influence of landmark visualization style on task performance, visual attention, and spatial learning in a real-world navigation task (2024) · cites this paper as Chrastil & Warren, 2012
The Conclusions and future directions section says that attention to relevant environmental properties contributes to route and survey knowledge. The paper does not establish that a mobile map aid reduces that attention or slows the rate of spatial knowledge acquisition. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The lack of direct influence of landmark visualization styles on spatial learning measures can be attributed to depicting landmarks as 3D building models in both conditions on the mobile map providing the necessary visual information to facilitate basic spatial learning required to solve the navigation task.
“The lack of direct influence of landmark visualization styles on spatial learning measures can be attributed to the fact that depicting landmarks as 3D building models in both conditions on the mobile map could have provided the necessary visual information to facilitate the basic spatial learning required to solve the navigation task (Chrastil & Warren, 2012; Elias & Paelke, 2008; Kapaj et al., 2”
From The influence of landmark visualization style on task performance, visual attention, and spatial learning in a real-world navigation task (2024) · cites this paper as Chrastil & Warren, 2012
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Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
When wayfinders are informed that their environmental knowledge will be tested, they exhibit different spatial learning strategies and visual attention behavior as opposed to when they are not made aware of upcoming assessments.
“Previous research has shown that when wayfinders are informed that their environmental knowledge will be tested, they exhibit different spatial learning strategies and visual attention behavior as opposed to when they are not made aware of upcoming assessments (Chrastil & Warren, 2012; Van Asselen et al., 2006; Wenczel et al., 2017).”
From The influence of landmark visualization style on task performance, visual attention, and spatial learning in a real-world navigation task (2024) · cites this paper as Chrastil & Warren, 2012
In “Incidental and intentional learning of spatial information” (page not supplied), the paper reports that people told they would be tested on a route learned it more accurately than those not told, and it describes different memorization strategies in an intentional-versus-incidental learning study. It discusses attention as an explanation, but these passages do not establish a difference in observed visual attention behavior between test-aware and unaware wayfinders. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

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Chrastil, E. R. (2011). Neural correlates of landmark, route, and survey knowledge in human navigation. Manuscript under review
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Active and passive spatial learning in human navigation: Acquisition of graph knowledge.
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Contributions of attention and decision-making to spatial learning
Chrastil, E. R., & Warren, W. (2012) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/12.9.203
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Active and passive spatial learning in human navigation: Acquisition of survey knowledge.
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Self-citation
Spatial Navigation: Why is Active Exploration Better than Passive Exploration?
Chrastil, E. R., & Warren, W. (2011) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/11.11.928
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Learning a new city: Active and passive components of spatial learning
Chrastil, E. R., & Warren, W. (2010) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/10.7.1039
Self-citation

Authors: Chrastil, E. R., & Warren, W. H.
Affiliations: Brown University (US)
Corresponding author: Chrastil, Elizabeth R.
ORCID: Chrastil, Elizabeth R.
Warren, William H.
Venue: Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2011-11-15
Volume: 19
Issue: 1
Pages: 1-23
ISSN: 1069-9384 (ISSN-L)
1531-5320
DOI: 10.3758/s13423-011-0182-x
OpenAlex: W2060498941
Cited by: 261
References: 120
Citations by year: 2026: 23 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 26 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 33 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 17 · 2012: 6
FWCI: 4.00
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
Locations: Psychonomic Bulletin & Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Spatial Cognition and Navigation
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
Social Sciences › Geography, Planning and Development › Geography Education and Pedagogy
Keywords: spatial learning, active exploration, passive exposure, landmark learning, route learning, survey knowledge, working memory, attention, decision-making, virtual reality, spatial relations
MeSH terms: Attention, Decision Making, Exploratory Behavior, Humans, Learning, Spatial Behavior, Problem-Based Learning

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