Identifiable acetylene features predicted for young Earth-like exoplanets with reducing atmospheres undergoing heavy bombardment
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Abstract The chemical environments of young planets are assumed to be largely influenced by the impacts of bodies lingering on unstable trajectories after the dissolution of the protoplanetary disk. We explore the chemical consequences of impacts within the context of reducing planetary atmospheres dominated by carbon monoxide, methane, and molecular nitrogen. A terawatt high-power laser was selected in order to simulate the airglow plasma and blast wave surrounding the impactor. The chemical results of these experiments are then applied to a theoretical atmospheric model. The impact simulation results in substantial volume mixing ratios within the reactor of 5% hydrogen cyanide (HCN), 8% acetylene (C2H2), 5% cyanoacetylene (HC3N), and 1% ammonia (NH3). These yields are combined with estimated impact rates for the early Earth to predict surface boundary conditions for an atmospheric model. We show that impacts might have served as sources of energy that would have led to steady-state surface quantities of 0.4% C2H2, 400 ppm HCN, and 40 ppm NH3. We provide simulated transit spectra for an Earth-like exoplanet with this reducing atmosphere during and shortly after eras of intense impacts. We predict that acetylene is as observable as other molecular features on exoplanets with reducing atmospheres that have recently gone through their own “heavy bombardments,” with prominent features at 3.05 and 10.5 μm.
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Conditions of very low total atmospheric surface pressures and H2O dissociation at least periodically existed during the Archean, as derived from approximately 2.4 Ga old micrometeorites oxidized in the upper atmosphere.
“That such conditions at least periodically existed and H 2 Owas then indeed dissociated can be derived from ≈ 2.4 Ga old micrometeorites which were oxidized in the upper atmosphere (Tomkins et al. 2016; Zahnle and Buick 2016; Rimmer et al. 2020).”
From The young Sun's XUV-activity as a constraint for lower CO2-limits in the Earth's Archean atmosphere (2021) · cites this paper as Rimmer et al. 2020
The Introduction discusses possible Hadean atmospheric compositions, and §5.2 models a reducing atmosphere, but neither addresses the claimed evidence from approximately 2.4 Ga micrometeorites. Searches for micrometeorites, very low surface pressure, and H2O dissociation found no passage linking them to Archean conditions; page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.75)
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Hydroxide Salts in the Clouds of Venus: Their Effect on the Sulfur Cycle and Cloud Droplet pH
Rimmer, P. B., Jordan, S., Constantinou, T., Woitke, P., Shorttle, O., Hobbs, R., & Paschodimas, A. (2021) · The Planetary Science Journal · doi:10.3847/psj/ac0156 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
A Comprehensive Review of HCN-Derived Polymers
Ruiz-Bermejo, M., de la Fuente, J. L., Pérez-Fernández, C., & Mateo-Martí, E. (2021) · Processes · doi:10.3390/pr9040597 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
The young Sun's XUV-activity as a constraint for lower CO2-limits in the Earth's Archean atmosphere
Johnstone, C. P., Lammer, H., Kislyakova, K. G., Scherf, M., & Güdel, M. (2021) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2021.117197 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Liggins, P., Jordan, S., Rimmer, P. B., & Shorttle, O. (2022) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2021je007123 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Ferus, M., Rimmer, P. B., Cassone, G., Knížek, A., Civiš, S., Šponer, J. E., Ivanek, O., Šponer, J., Saeidfirozeh, H., Kubelík, P., et al. (2020) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2020.2231 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Role of Acetylene in the Chemical Evolution of Carbon Complexity
Pentsak, E. O., Murga, M. S., & Ananikov, V. P. (2024) · ACS Earth and Space Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acsearthspacechem.3c00223 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Timescales for Prebiotic Photochemistry Under Realistic Surface Ultraviolet Conditions
Rimmer, P. B., Thompson, S. J., Xu, J., Russell, D. A., Green, N. J., Ritson, D. J., Sutherland, J. D., & Queloz, D. P. (2021) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2020.2335 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Gianfrani, L., Hu, S.-M., & Ubachs, W. (2024) · Rivista Del Nuovo Cimento · doi:10.1007/s40766-024-00054-z · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Chubb, K. L., Robert, S., Sousa‐Silva, C., Yurchenko, S. N., Allard, N. F., Boudon, V., Buldyreva, J. V., Bultel, B., Coustenis, A., Foltynowicz, A., et al. (2024) · RAS Techniques and Instruments · doi:10.1093/rasti/rzae039 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Investigating the detectability of hydrocarbons in exoplanet atmospheres with JWST
Gasman, D., Min, M., & Chubb, K. L. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202141468 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Reduced Late Bombardment on Rocky Exoplanets around M Dwarfs
Lichtenberg, T., & Clement, M. S. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac9521 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Prebiosignature Molecules Can Be Detected in Temperate Exoplanet Atmospheres with JWST
Claringbold, A. B., Rimmer, P. B., Rugheimer, S., & Shorttle, O. (2023) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/acdacc · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Civiš, S., Pastorek, A., Ferus, M., Yurchenko, S. N., & Boudjema, N. (2023) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules28083362 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Lamb-dip cavity ring-down spectroscopy of acetylene at 1.4 μm
Fasci, E., Gravina, S., Porzio, G., Castrillo, A., & Gianfrani, L. (2021) · New Journal of Physics · doi:10.1088/1367-2630/ac3b6e · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Prebiotic synthesis of noncanonical nucleobases under plausible alkaline hydrothermal conditions
Pérez-Fernández, C., Vega, J., Rayo-Pizarroso, P., Mateo‐Martí, E., & Ruiz‐Bermejo, M. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-19474-0 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Castrillo, A., Fasci, E., Furtenbacher, T., D’Agostino, V., Khan, M. A., Gravina, S., Gianfrani, L., & Császár, A. G. (2023) · Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics · doi:10.1039/d3cp01835k · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Nitrogen Oxide Production in Laser‐Induced Breakdown Simulating Impacts on the Hadean Atmosphere
Heays, A. N., Kaiserová, T., Rimmer, P. B., Knížek, A., Petera, L., Civiš, S., Juha, L., Dudžák, R., Krůs, M., Scherf, M., et al. (2022) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2021je006842 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Ferus, M., Knížek, A., Petera, L., Pastorek, A., Hrnčířová, J., Jankovič, Ľ., Ivanek, O., Sponer, J., Křivková, A., Saeidfirozeh, H., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences · doi:10.3389/fspas.2022.882145 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Ferus, M., Knížek, A., Cassone, G., Rimmer, P. B., Changela, H. G., Chatzitheodoridis, E., Uwarowa, I., Žabka, J., Kábath, P., Saija, F., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences · doi:10.3389/fspas.2023.1186172 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Decomposition of Benzene during Impacts in N2-dominated Atmospheres
Petera, L., Knížek, A., Laitl, V., & Ferus, M. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acbd48 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Rimmer, P. B. (2023) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119555568.ch16 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Asteroid Prospecting and Space Mining
Ferus, M., Žabka, J., Schmidt, N., & Heays, A. N. (2022) · Space and society · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-86555-9_12 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Bartnik, A. S., Majszyk, M., Skrzeczanowski, W., Fok, T., Węgrzyński, Ł., Wachulak, P. W., & Fiedorowicz, H. (2024) · Physics of Plasmas · doi:10.1063/5.0196760 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Morphology of Meteorite Surfaces Ablated by High-Power Lasers: Review and Applications
Křivková, A., Laitl, V., Chatzitheodoridis, E., Petera, L., Kubelík, P., Knížek, A., Saeidfirozeh, H., Drtinová, B., Čuba, V., Páclík, D., et al. (2022) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app12104869 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Decomposition of HCN during Experimental Impacts in Dry and Wet Planetary Atmospheres
Knížek, A., Petera, L., Laitl, V., & Ferus, M. (2024) · ACS Earth and Space Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acsearthspacechem.4c00064 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Bartnik, A. S., Jach, K., Świerczyński, R., Majszyk, M., Fok, T., Węgrzyński, Ł., Wachulak, P. W., & Fiedorowicz, H. (2022) · Physics of Plasmas · doi:10.1063/5.0099683 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Ariel – a window to the origin of life on early earth?
Ferus, M., Adam, V., Cassone, G., Civiš, S., Čuba, V., Chatzitheodoridis, E., Drtinová, B., Lefloch, B., Heays, A. N., Jheeta, S., et al. (2020) · Experimental Astronomy · doi:10.1007/s10686-020-09681-w · Cited by 3 · see citing works
A full-atmosphere model of Jupiter
Knížek, A., Rimmer, P. B., & Ferus, M. (2025) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2025.116806 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Prebiotic Chemistry of Nucleobases and Nucleotides
Burcar, B. T., & Menor-Salván, C. A. (2022) · Royal Society of Chemistry eBooks · doi:10.1039/9781839164798-00215 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
R-matrix calculation electron collisions with HCN and HNC molecules
Singh, J., & Tennyson, J. (2022) · The European Physical Journal D · doi:10.1140/epjd/s10053-022-00575-4 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
HCN-Derived Polymers: From Prebiotic Chemistry to Materials Science
Ruiz‐Bermejo, M., de la Fuente, J. L., Pérez-Fernández, C., & Mateo‐Martí, E. (2024) · Advances in material research and technology · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-62186-4_3 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Liggins, P., Jordan, S., Rimmer, P. B., & Shorttle, O. (2021) · arXiv (Cornell University)
Majszyk, M., Bartnik, A. S., Skrzeczanowski, W., Fok, T., Węgrzyński, Ł., Szczurek, M., & Fiedorowicz, H. (2023) · Nukleonika · doi:10.2478/nuka-2023-0002
Photoionisation cross-sections of HCN, HNC, and HNO
Meng, J., Wang, Y., & Wang, K. (2026) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202658840
- Authors
- Rimmer, P. B., Ferus, M., Waldmann, I. P., Knížek, A., Kalvaitis, D., Ivanek, O., Kubelík, P., Yurchenko, S. N., Burian, T., Dostál, J., Juha, L., Dudžák, R., Krůs, M., Tennyson, J., Civiš, S., Archibald, A. T., & Granville-Willett, A.
- Affiliations
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology (GB)
- Czech Academy of Sciences (CZ)
- University College London (GB)
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- ORCID
- Venue
- The Astrophysical Journal
- Publisher
- American Astronomical Society
- Published
- 2019-12-30
- Volume
- 888
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 21
- ISSN
- 0004-637X (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4357
- OpenAlex
- W2988582677
- Cited by
- 34
- References
- 89
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 2
- FWCI
- 2.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- The Astrophysical Journal (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- Simons Foundation (SCOL awards 59963)
- ERDF/ESF (CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_019/0000778)
- Czech Ministry of Education (LTT17015)
- UK STFC (ST/M001334/1)
- European Research Council (European Union Horizon 2020 Grant 758892)
- Natural Environment Research Council (National Centre for Atmospheric Science)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astro and Planetary Science
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Space Science and Extraterrestrial Life
- Keywords
- acetylene, reducing atmosphere, heavy bombardment, hydrogen cyanide, HC3N, ammonia, carbon monoxide, methane, nitrogen molecule, blast wave, transit spectra, early Earth, protoplanetary disks, atmospheric modeling
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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