Organic haze on Titan and the early Earth
Open accessAbstract
Recent exploration by the Cassini/Huygens mission has stimulated a great deal of interest in Saturn's moon, Titan. One of Titan's most captivating features is the thick organic haze layer surrounding the moon, believed to be formed from photochemistry high in the CH 4 /N 2 atmosphere. It has been suggested that a similar haze layer may have formed on the early Earth. Here we report laboratory experiments that demonstrate the properties of haze likely to form through photochemistry on Titan and early Earth. We have used a deuterium lamp to initiate particle production in these simulated atmospheres from UV photolysis. Using a unique analysis technique, the aerosol mass spectrometer, we have studied the chemical composition, size, and shape of the particles produced as a function of initial trace gas composition. Our results show that the aerosols produced in the laboratory can serve as analogs for the observed haze in Titan's atmosphere. Experiments performed under possible conditions for early Earth suggest a significant optical depth of haze may have dominated the early Earth's atmosphere. Aerosol size measurements are presented, and implications for the haze layer properties are discussed. We estimate that aerosol production on the early Earth may have been on the order of 10 14 g·year −1 and thus could have served as a primary source of organic material to the surface.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
If the CH4:CO2 ratio exceeds ~0.1 in a UV-irradiated CO2-N2-CH4 mixture, radicals from methane photolysis polymerize into organic particles.
“Empirically, if the CH4:CO2 ratio exceeds ~0.1 in a UV-irradiated CO2-N2-CH4 mixture, radicals from methane photolysis polymerize into organic particles (192).”
From The Archean atmosphere (2020) · cites this paper as [192]
Cites
Woese, C. R. (1987) · Microbiological Reviews · doi:10.1128/mr.51.2.221-271.1987 · Cited by 5,042 · see citing works
A Production of Amino Acids Under Possible Primitive Earth Conditions
Miller, S. L. (1953) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.117.3046.528 · Cited by 3,522 · see citing works
The Carbon Cycle and Atmospheric CO2 : Natural Variations Archean to Present
Sundquist, E. T., & Broecker, W. S. (1985) · Geophysical monograph · doi:10.1029/gm032 · Cited by 1,656 · see citing works
Development of an Aerosol Mass Spectrometer for Size and Composition Analysis of Submicron Particles
Jayne, J. T., Leard, D. C., Zhang, X., Davidovits, P., Smith, K. A., Kolb, C. E., & Worsnop, D. R. (2000) · Aerosol Science and Technology · doi:10.1080/027868200410840 · Cited by 1,605 · see citing works
A Serpentinite-Hosted Ecosystem: The Lost City Hydrothermal Field
Kelley, D. S., Karson, J. A., Früh-Green, G. L., Yoerger, D. R., Shank, T. M., Butterfield, D. A., Hayes, J. M., Schrenk, M. O., Olson, E. J., Proskurowski, G., et al. (2005) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1102556 · Cited by 1,288 · see citing works
DeCarlo, P. F., Slowik, J. G., Worsnop, D. R., Davidovits, P., & Jimenez, J. L. (2004) · Aerosol Science and Technology · doi:10.1080/027868290903907 · Cited by 1,240 · see citing works
Self-citationPhotochemistry of the atmosphere of Titan - Comparison between model and observations
Yung, Y. L., Allen, M., & Pinto, J. P. (1984) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.1086/190963 · Cited by 1,069 · see citing works
Ambient aerosol sampling using the Aerodyne Aerosol Mass Spectrometer
Jimenez, J. L., Jayne, J. T., Shi, Q., Kolb, C. E., Worsnop, D. R., Yourshaw, I., Seinfeld, J. H., Flagan, R. C., Zhang, X., Smith, K. A., et al. (2003) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2001jd001213 · Cited by 963 · see citing works
Self-citationThe abundances of constituents of Titan's atmosphere from the GCMS instrument on the Huygens probe
Niemann, H., Atreya, S. K., Bauer, S. J., Carignan, G. R., Demick, J. E., Frost, R. L., Gautier, D., Haberman, J., Harpold, D. N., Hunten, D. M., et al. (2005) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature04122 · Cited by 960 · see citing works
Volcanic gases, black smokers, and the great oxidation event
Holland, H. D. (2002) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/s0016-7037(02)00950-x · Cited by 920 · see citing works
Khare, B. N., Sagan, C., Arakawa, E. T., Suits, F., Callcott, T. A., & Williams, M. W. (1984) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/0019-1035(84)90142-8 · Cited by 706 · see citing works
Zhang, Q., Alfarra, M. R., Worsnop, D. R., Allan, J. D., Coe, H., Canagaratna, M. R., & Jimenez, J. L. (2005) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es048568l · Cited by 607 · see citing works
Self-citationRain, winds and haze during the Huygens probe's descent to Titan's surface
Tomasko, M. G., Archinal, B. A., Becker, T. L., Bézard, B., Bushroe, M., Combes, M., Cook, D., Coustenis, A., de Bérgh, C., Dafoe, L. E., et al. (2005) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature04126 · Cited by 603 · see citing works
Allan, J. D., Jimenez, J. L., Williams, P. I., Alfarra, M. R., Bower, K. N., Jayne, J. T., Coe, H., & Worsnop, D. R. (2003) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2002jd002358 · Cited by 564 · see citing works
Self-citationGreenhouse warming by CH <sub>4</sub> in the atmosphere of early Earth
Pavlov, A. A., Kasting, J. F., Brown, L. L., Rages, K. A., & Freedman, R. (2000) · Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets · doi:10.1029/1999je001134 · Cited by 537 · see citing works
Self-citationIon Neutral Mass Spectrometer Results from the First Flyby of Titan
Waite, J. H., Niemann, H. B., Yelle, R. V., Kasprzak, W. T., Cravens, T. E., LUHMANN, J. G., McNutt, R. L., Ip, W.-H., Gell, D. A., Haye, V. D. L., et al. (2005) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1110652 · Cited by 465 · see citing works
Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations before 2.2 billion years ago
Rye, R., Kuo, P. H., & Holland, H. D. (1995) · Nature · doi:10.1038/378603a0 · Cited by 431 · see citing works
Imaging of Titan from the Cassini spacecraft
Porco, C. C., Baker, E., Barbara, J., Beurle, K., Brahic, A., Burns, J. A., Charnoz, S., Cooper, N. J., Dawson, D. D., C, A. D. D. G., et al. (2005) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature03436 · Cited by 423 · see citing works
Photochemical Modeling of Titan's Atmosphere
Toublanc, D. (1995) · Icarus · doi:10.1006/icar.1995.1002 · Cited by 404 · see citing works
The Early Faint Sun Paradox: Organic Shielding of Ultraviolet-Labile Greenhouse Gases
Sagan, C., & Chyba, C. (1997) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.276.5316.1217 · Cited by 396 · see citing works
A Hydrogen-Rich Early Earth Atmosphere
Tian, F., Toon, O. B., Pavlov, A. A., & De Sterck, H. (2005) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1106983 · Cited by 390 · see citing works
Self-citationTitan's Atmospheric Temperatures, Winds, and Composition
Flasar, F. M., Achterberg, R. K., Conrath, B. J., Gierasch, P. J., Kunde, V. G., Nixon, C. A., Bjoraker, G. L., Jennings, D. E., Romani, P. N., Simon, A. A., et al. (2005) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1111150 · Cited by 358 · see citing works
Imanaka, H., Khare, B. N., Elsila, J. E., Bakes, E. L. O., McKay, C. P., Cruikshank, D. P., Sugita, S., Matsui, T., & Zare, R. N. (2004) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2003.12.014 · Cited by 335 · see citing works
Self-citationUV shielding of NH3and O2by organic hazes in the Archean atmosphere
Pavlov, A. A., Brown, L. L., & Kasting, J. F. (2001) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2000je001448 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
Self-citationNew particle formation from photooxidation of diiodomethane (CH 2 I 2 )
Jimenez, J. L., Bahreini, R., Cocker, D. R., et al. (2003) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2002jd002452 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
Self-citationZahnle, K. J. (1986) · Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/jd091id02p02819 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
Complex organic matter in Titan's atmospheric aerosols from in situ pyrolysis and analysis
Israël, G., Szopa, C., Raulin, F., Cabane, M., Niemann, H. B., Atreya, S. K., Bauer, S. J., Brun, J.-F., Chassefière, E., Coll, P., et al. (2005) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature04349 · Cited by 256 · see citing works
Stribling, R., & Miller, S. L. (1987) · Origins of life and evolution of the biosphere · doi:10.1007/bf02386466 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
Experimental laboratory simulation of Titan’s atmosphere: aerosols and gas phase
Coll, P., Coscia, D., Smith, N. S., Gazeau, M. ‐., Ramírez, S. I., Cernogora, G., Israël, G., & Raulin, F. (1999) · Planetary and Space Science · doi:10.1016/s0032-0633(99)00054-9 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
Chemical sources of haze formation in Titan's atmosphere
Wilson, E. H., & Atreya, S. K. (2003) · Planetary and Space Science · doi:10.1016/j.pss.2003.06.003 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Physical properties of the organic aerosols and clouds on Titan
McKay, C. P., Coustenis, A., Samuelson, R. E., Lemmon, M. T., Lorenz, R. D., Cabane, M., Rannou, P., & Drossart, P. (2001) · Planetary and Space Science · doi:10.1016/s0032-0633(00)00051-9 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Self-citationA physical model of Titan's aerosols
Toon, O. B., McKay, C. P., Griffith, C. A., & TURCO, R. P. (1992) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/0019-1035(92)90188-d · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Self-citationPlasma discharge in N2 + CH4 at low pressures: Experimental results and applications to Titan
Thompson, W. R., Henry, T. J., Schwartz, J. M., Khare, B. N., & Sagan, C. (1991) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/0019-1035(91)90068-5 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
The Cassini UVIS Stellar Probe of the Titan Atmosphere
Shemansky, D. E., Stewart, A. I. F., West, R. A., et al. (2005) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1111790 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Optical properties of aggregate particles whose outer diameter is comparable to the wavelength
West, R. A. (1991) · Applied Optics · doi:10.1364/ao.30.005316 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Titan's Geometric Albedo: Role of the Fractal Structure of the Aerosols
Rannou, P., Cabane, M., Chassefière, É., Botet, R. S., McKay, C. P., & Courtin, R. (1995) · Icarus · doi:10.1006/icar.1995.1196 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Self-citationOn the Importance of Organic Oxygen for Understanding Organic Aerosol Particles
Pang, Y., Turpin, B. J., & Gundel, L. A. (2006) · Aerosol Science and Technology · doi:10.1080/02786820500423790 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
HD 129333: The Sun in its infancy
Dorren, J. D., & Guinan, E. F. (1994) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/174289 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
The early atmosphere as a source of biogenic compounds
Kasting, J. F., & Brown, L. L. (1998) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511626180.004 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Haze Aerosols in the Atmosphere of Early Earth: Manna from Heaven
Trainer, M. G., Pavlov, A. A., Curtis, D. B., McKay, C. P., Worsnop, D. R., Delia, A. E., Toohey, D. W., Toon, O. B., & Tolbert, M. A. (2004) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2004.4.409 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Self-citationSimulation of Titan haze formation using a photochemical flow reactor
Tran, B. N., Joseph, J. C., Ferris, J. P., Persans, P. D., & Chera, J. J. (2003) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/s0019-1035(03)00209-4 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Analytic Solutions for the Antigreenhouse Effect: Titan and the Early Earth
McKay, C. P., Lorenz, R. D., & Lunine, J. I. (1999) · Icarus · doi:10.1006/icar.1998.6039 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Self-citationTitan Aerosol Analogues: Analysis of the Nonvolatile Tholins
Sarker, N., Somogyi, Á., Lunine, J. I., & Smith, M. A. (2003) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/153110703322736042 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
CHEMICAL EVOLUTION ON TITAN: COMPARISONS TO THE PREBIOTIC EARTH
Clarke, D. W., & Ferris, J. P. (1997) · Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres · doi:10.1023/a:1006582416293 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Analysis of the Time-Dependent Chemical Evolution of Titan Haze Tholin
Khare, B. N. (2002) · Icarus · doi:10.1006/icar.2002.6899 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Chemical Evolution on Titan: Comparisons to the Prebiotic Earth
Clarke, D. W., & Ferris, J. P. (1997) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-015-8907-9_12 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Tran, B. N. (2003) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/s0019-1035(02)00069-6 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Chemical composition of Titan's haze: Are PAHs present?
Trainer, M. G., Pavlov, A. A., Jimenez, J. L., et al. (2004) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2004gl019859 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Self-citationCorrection to “New particle formation from photooxidation of diiodomethane (CH2I2)”
Jimenez, J. L., Bahreini, R., Cocker, D. R., et al. (2003) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2003jd004249 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationOxirane: An Exotic Oxygenated Organic Compound on Titan?
Coll, P., Bernard, J., Navarro-González, R., & Raulin, F. (2003) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/378792 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Ádámkovics, M., & Boering, K. A. (2003) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2002je002028 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Titan's atmosphere and surface: Parallels and differences with the primitive Earth
Coustenis, A. (1994) · Earth Moon and Planets · doi:10.1007/bf00613295 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Middle Archean continent formation by crustal delamination
Zegers, T. E., & van Keken, P. E. (2001) · Geology · doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2001)029
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Catling, D. C., & Zahnle, K. J. (2020) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aax1420 · Cited by 568 · see citing works
A Revised, Hazy Methane Greenhouse for the Archean Earth
Haqq-Misra, J. D., Domagal-Goldman, S. D., Kasting, P. J., & Kasting, J. F. (2008) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2007.0197 · Cited by 357 · see citing works
Constraining the climate and ocean pH of the early Earth with a geological carbon cycle model
Krissansen-Totton, J., Arney, G. N., & Catling, D. C. (2018) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1721296115 · Cited by 348 · see citing works
Feulner, G. (2012) · Reviews of Geophysics · doi:10.1029/2011rg000375 · Cited by 338 · see citing works
The Pale Orange Dot: The Spectrum and Habitability of Hazy Archean Earth
Arney, G., Domagal-Goldman, S. D., Meadows, V. S., Wolf, E. T., Schwieterman, E., Charnay, B., Claire, M., Hébrard, E., & Trainer, M. G. (2016) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2015.1422 · Cited by 327 · see citing works
Self-citationExoplanet Biosignatures: A Framework for Their Assessment
Catling, D. C., Krissansen-Totton, J., Kiang, N. Y., Crisp, D., Robinson, T. D., DasSarma, S., Rushby, A. J., Del Genio, A., Bains, W., & Domagal-Goldman, S. (2018) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2017.1737 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
Revisiting HCN formation in Earth's early atmosphere
Tian, F., Kasting, J. F., & Zahnle, K. (2011) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.06.011 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Exploring the faint young Sun problem and the possible climates of the Archean Earth with a 3‐D GCM
Charnay, B., Forget, F., Wordsworth, R., Leconte, J., Millour, E., Codron, F., & Spiga, A. (2013) · Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres · doi:10.1002/jgrd.50808 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Homann, M., Heubeck, C., Airo, A., & Tice, M. M. (2015) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2015.04.018 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Domagal-Goldman, S. D., Wright, K. E., Domagal-Goldman, S. D., Wright, K. E., Adamala, K., Arina de la Rubia, L., Bond, J., Dartnell, L. R., Goldman, A. D., Lynch, K., et al. (2016) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2015.1460 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Modeling the signature of sulfur mass-independent fractionation produced in the Archean atmosphere
Claire, M. W., Kasting, J. F., Domagal-Goldman, S. D., Stüeken, E. E., Buick, R., & Meadows, V. S. (2014) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2014.06.032 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Estimates of atmospheric CO2 in the Neoarchean–Paleoproterozoic from paleosols
Kanzaki, Y., & Murakami, T. (2015) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2015.03.011 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Biological regulation of atmospheric chemistry en route to planetary oxygenation
Izon, G., Zerkle, A. L., Williford, K. H., Farquhar, J., Poulton, S. W., & Claire, M. W. (2017) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1618798114 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Effects of primitive photosynthesis on Earth’s early climate system
Ozaki, K., Tajika, E., Hong, P. K., Nakagawa, Y., & Reinhard, C. T. (2018) · Nature Geoscience · doi:10.1038/s41561-017-0031-2 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Coupled noble gas–hydrocarbon evolution of the early Earth atmosphere upon solar UV irradiation
Hébrard, E., & Marty, B. (2014) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2013.10.022 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Thomazo, C., Nisbet, E. G., Grassineau, N. V., Peters, M., & Strauss, H. (2013) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2013.06.036 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Rimmer, P. B., Ferus, M., Waldmann, I. P., Knížek, A., Kalvaitis, D., Ivanek, O., Kubelík, P., Yurchenko, S. N., Burian, T., Dostál, J., et al. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab55e8 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
- Authors
- Trainer, M. G., Pavlov, A. A., DeWitt, H. L., Jimenez, J. L., McKay, C. P., Toon, O. B., & Tolbert, M. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Colorado Boulder (US)
- University of Arizona (US)
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (US)
- Ames Research Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Tolbert, Margaret A.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2006-11-28
- Volume
- 103
- Issue
- 48
- Pages
- 18035-18042
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC1838702
- OpenAlex
- W2018028106
- Cited by
- 280
- References
- 53
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 22 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 2.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NNG05GA53G, NNG04GM42G)
- John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation
- NASA Astrobiology Institute
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astro and Planetary Science
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Atmospheric Science › Atmospheric chemistry and aerosols
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Origins and Evolution of Life
- Keywords
- Titan haze, early Earth atmosphere, UV photolysis, aerosol mass spectrometry, optical depth, organic aerosol
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
