Consumption of Breakfast and the Type of Breakfast Consumed Are Positively Associated with Nutrient Intakes and Adequacy of Canadian Adults
Open accessAbstract
Few studies have assessed the associations between breakfast intake and nutrient adequacy [where inadequacy reflects prevalence of usual intakes below the estimated average requirement (EAR) and potential excess reflects the prevalence above the tolerable upper intake level (UL)]. This study examined associations among breakfast, nutrient intakes, and nutrient adequacy in Canadian adults. Respondents aged ≥19 y in the Canadian Community Health Survey 2.2 (n = 19,913) were classified as breakfast nonconsumers (11%), ready-to-eat cereal (RTEC) breakfast consumers (20%), or other breakfast consumers (69%). Nutrient intakes from food (24-h recall) and the prevalence of usual intakes below the EAR and above the UL from food alone and from food plus supplements were compared by breakfast group. Usual intake distributions were estimated using the National Cancer Institute method. Breakfast consumers, and to a greater extent RTEC breakfast consumers, had significantly higher intakes of fiber and several vitamins and minerals than breakfast nonconsumers. Compared with nonconsumers, RTEC and other breakfast consumers had significantly lower prevalences below the EARs for vitamin A and magnesium. The prevalences below the EARs of these nutrients and calcium, thiamin, vitamin D, and iron were significantly lower with RTEC breakfasts than with other breakfasts. Similar patterns were observed from food alone compared with food plus supplements. Breakfast consumption did not affect prevalence above the UL based on food sources, although based on food plus supplements, breakfast consumers had slightly higher proportions that were above the UL than nonconsumers for several nutrients. Breakfast, especially an RTEC breakfast, is associated with improved nutrient adequacy and does not meaningfully affect prevalence above the UL.
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Meal patterns were mostly participant-identified, although these studies varied in the additional criteria used to determine an individual eating occasion, meal and/or snack, and their treatment of beverages.
“Meal patterns were mostly participant-identified( 15 , 23 , 45 – 48 , 52 , 53 , 57 , 66 , 69 , 70 , 75 , 77 , 78 , 82 ), although these studies varied in the additional criteria used to determine an individual EO, meal and/or snack, and their treatment of beverages.”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [66]
Only thirteen of these studies examined more than one micronutrient.
“However, only thirteen of these examined more than one micronutrient( 23 , 30 , 46 , 47 , 52 , 64 – 71 ).”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [66]
Eleven studies applied no additional criteria, whereas other studies delineated eating occasions using 15-min, 30-min, 45-min plus 50 kcal, or 59-min intervals.
“For example, eleven studies( 23 , 45 – 47 , 52 , 66 , 69 , 75 , 78 , 80 , 82 ) applied no additional criteria, whereas in other studies, EO were delineated using 15-min time intervals( 57 , 70 , 77 ), a 30-min interval( 53 ), a 45-min interval plus a 50 kcal (210 kJ) energy criterion( 15 ) and a 59-min interval (applied to meals only)( 48 ).”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [66]
Breakfast skipping was associated with a higher prevalence of not meeting the recommended intakes for Ca, vitamin C, folate, vitamin A and Mg compared with regular breakfast consumers.
“Breakfast skipping was also associated with a higher prevalence of not meeting the recommended intakes for Ca( 64 , 66 , 68 , 69 ), vitamin C( 23 , 64 , 68 , 69 ), folate( 64 , 68 , 69 ), vitamin A( 23 , 66 , 68 , 69 ) and Mg( 23 , 66 ) compared with regular breakfast consumers.”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [66]
Breakfast skipping was consistently associated with lower micronutrient intakes, even after adjustment for energy intake and other important confounders.
“Breakfast skipping was consistently associated with lower micronutrient intakes( 23 , 64 , 66 , 68 , 69 , 71 ), even after adjustment for EI and other important confounders( 23 , 60 , 66 ).”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [66]
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Deshmukh-Taskar, P. R., Radcliffe, J. D., Liu, Y., & Nicklas, T. A. (2010) · Journal of the American College of Nutrition · doi:10.1080/07315724.2010.10719858 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Williams, P. (2005) · International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/09637480500082108 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
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Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality
Leech, R. M., Worsley, A., Timperio, A., & McNaughton, S. A. (2015) · Nutrition Research Reviews · doi:10.1017/s0954422414000262 · Cited by 379 · see citing works
Characterizing eating patterns: a comparison of eating occasion definitions
Leech, R. M., Worsley, A., Timperio, A., & McNaughton, S. A. (2015) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.115.114660 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
- Authors
- Barr, S. I., DiFrancesco, L., & Fulgoni, V. L.
- Affiliations
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Barr, Susan I.
- Venue
- The Journal of Nutrition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2013-01
- Volume
- 143
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 86-92
- ISSN
- 0022-3166 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2141444547
- Cited by
- 71
- References
- 2
- Citations by year
- 2025: 2 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 4 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 4.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutrition and Health Studies
- Keywords
- breakfast consumption, ready-to-eat cereals, nutritional adequacy, nutrient intake, dietary supplements, usual dietary intake, estimated average requirement, tolerable upper intake level, dietary fiber intake, vitamin intake, mineral intake, vitamin A, magnesium, calcium, thiamine, vitamin D, iron, Canadian adults
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Canada, Edible Grain, Cross-Sectional Studies, Diet, Dietary Fiber, Female, Food, Fortified, Health Promotion, Health Surveys, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Nutritional Status, Sex Characteristics, Micronutrients, Dietary Supplements, Young Adult, Fast Foods, Breakfast
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