The performance of electric fences as elephant barriers in Amboseli, Kenya
Abstract
Electric fencing is increasingly used as a tool for elephant (Loxodonta africana) conservation in human-dominated landscapes and there are few empirical studies to demonstrate that electrified barriers are effective in deterring elephants from raiding crops. The factors determining the effectiveness of electric fences are not fully understood. We assessed the performance of Namelok and Kimana fences in reducing human–elephant conflict by comparing the frequency of crop-raiding by elephants and the perceptions of farmers on the effect of the fences in reducing elephant crop-raiding within fenced and adjacent unfenced farmlands. We also examined the effect of intact fence wires, presence of current and amount of voltage on fence breakage by elephants. Electric fencing reduced elephant crop-raiding and other forms of human–elephant conflicts. Namelok fence was not broken by elephants whereas Kimana fence was broken several times probably because it borders Kimana Sanctuary which provided cover where elephants could retreat after crop-raiding. The mere presence of current did not minimize fence breakage by elephants. Elephants entered fenced areas more frequently when the fence wires were broken than when wires were intact. Our results suggest that, location of fences in relation to landscape factors, maintenance of effective non-electrified fences and proximity of fences to areas of high elephant concentration are significant determinants of fence performance in mitigating elephant crop-raiding.
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Elephants have been observed overcoming barriers to access and forage on crop fields.
“elephants have been observed overcoming barriers to access and forage on crop fields (Fernando et al., 2008; Kioko et al., 2008; Mutinda et al., 2014)”
From Do elephants really never forget? What we know about elephant memory and a call for further investigation (2025) · cites this paper as Kioko et al., 2008
To access crops, elephants have learned to overcome barriers, such as electric fences, that are meant to deter them from entering crop fields.
“To access crops, elephants have learned to overcome barriers, such as electric fences, that are meant to deter them from entering crop fields (Kioko et al., 2008; Mutinda et al., 2014).”
From Do elephants really never forget? What we know about elephant memory and a call for further investigation (2025) · cites this paper as Kioko et al., 2008
In the wild, elephants have demonstrated their ability to find solutions to novel problems when they determine how to overcome barriers, such as electric fences, to enter crop fields to forage.
“In the wild, elephants have demonstrated their ability to find solutions to novel problems when they determine how to overcome barriers, such as electric fences, to enter crop fields to forage (Fernando et al., 2008; Kioko et al., 2008; Mutinda et al., 2014).”
From Do elephants really never forget? What we know about elephant memory and a call for further investigation (2025) · cites this paper as Kioko et al., 2008
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- Authors
- Kioko, J., Muruthi, P., Omondi, P., & Chiyo, P. I.
- Affiliations
- Kenya Wildlife Service (KE)
- Duke University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kioko, John
- Venue
- South African Journal of Wildlife Research
- Published
- 2008-04
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 52-58
- ISSN
- 0379-4369 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2145285905
- Cited by
- 118
- References
- 19
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 7 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 2.31
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- South African Journal of Wildlife Research (publishedVersion)
- BioOne Complete (BioOne) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife-Road Interactions and Conservation
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Rangeland and Wildlife Management
- Keywords
- electric fences, human-elephant conflict, crop raiding, Loxodonta africana, Amboseli, farmer perceptions, landscape factors
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