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Archéologie précolombienne et analyses scientifiques: la figurine d'el angel, une œuvre composite d'orfèvrerie de la culture La tolita tumaco (equateur-colombie)
Open accessAbstract
Une petite figurine en or provenant du site El Angel est associée aux traditions orfèvres Tumaco La Tolita, alors qu’elle provient d’une région hors de l’aire culturelle de cette civilisation, à l’extérieur de la frange côtière. L’étude, au moyen de méthodes non-destructives, des techniques de mise en forme, assemblage et décoration utilisées pour sa fabrication montre que la figurine a subi un remontage moderne, mais que la grande majorité de ses parties principales est authentique.La composition élémentaire des alliages et surtout la présence de fortes teneurs en Fe, Pd et Pt sont typiques des ors utilisés pour l’orfèvrerie La Tolita Tumaco. La figurine provenant du site d’El Angel, en Sierra, serait ainsi un des rares exemples d’objets exportés loin de son aire géoculturelle.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Scientific analysis of the composite El Angel figurine attributed to La Tolita Tumaco shows that most main gold parts are ancient and compositionally consistent with that culture, but several elements are modern restorations. The original gold alloy averages 77.7% Au, 10.8% Ag, 8.0% Cu, and 2.5% Pt, while suspect added parts lack platinum and include brass wires.
Key findings
- The figurine (13 cm high, 6 cm wide) is made of 12 major hammered gold-sheet elements assembled with wires; the right eye is a sintered gold-platinum alloy with 3.3% Fe, consistent with La Tolita, whereas the left eye is silver-copper and considered a later addition.
- Original parts average 77.7±2.1% Au, 10.8±1.0% Ag, 8.0±1.0% Cu, and 2.5±0.4% Pt, with Ir-Pt-Os inclusions; suspect modern parts average 75.8±1.1% Au, 18.1±1.3% Ag, and 5.1±0.5% Cu, with Pt below detection limits.
- Modern interventions include the left eye and its contour wire, the left leg and probably left foot, and most or all assembly wires; blackish wires are brass, unknown in pre-Hispanic times, while yellow wires are gold alloys.
- Pd-Pt correlation links the original gold to alluvial coastal sources and to La Tolita Tumaco/Esmeraldas objects; the figurine may be a rare export to the Sierra El Angel, though how it reached the highlands remains unexplained.
Methods
- The El Angel figurine from the Musée du Quai-Branly was examined under binocular loupe, by X-radiography, and by scanning electron microscopy with a Philips XL30 ESEM in SE mode at 20 kV.
- Elemental analysis used the AGLAE accelerator with PIXE and PIGE, a 3 MeV proton beam extracted to air, two Si(Li) detectors for PIXE (one with a 75 μm copper filter), and a 30% efficiency HPGe detector at 45° for PIGE.
- Table 1 reports results for flat central regions of the figurine’s parts, from two measurements with 200–500 μm² scanning, compared with published La Tolita Tumaco and Esmeraldas compositions and Pd/Pt data.
Limitations
- The paper states that precise museum records were lacking, making the suggested cultural attribution hypothetical; it also states that current knowledge cannot explain how the figurine reached the highlands if it came from El Angel, and some identifications are tentative (“sans doute” for the left foot; “la plupart” or even all assembly wires).
- Evident from the text: this is a single-object study without excavated archaeological context, and the modern intervention is not dated precisely beyond its composition indicating European metallurgy.
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- Findingcitation
The composition of the right eye of the El Angel figurine falls in the chemical region defined by platinum, gold and silver contents obtained by Bergsoe (1937) and Scott and Bray (1994) for objects attributed to La Tolita.
“Par ailleurs, la composition de l'œil droit se situe dans la région chimique définie par les teneurs en platine, or et argent obtenues par Bergsoe (1937) et par Scott and Bray (1994) pour des objets attribués à La Tolita.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Bergsoe, 1937
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Scott and Bray, 1994
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Findingown data
Detailed observation of the eyes under binocular magnification shows two types of manufacture of the twisted wires forming the eye contour.
“L'observation détaillée des yeux sous loupe binoculaire met en évidence les deux types de fabrication des fils torsadés formant le contour de l'œil.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
On Figure 4, palladium and platinum are correlated for objects from La Tolita, objects made by coastal civilizations, and for the El Angel figurine.
“Sur la Figure4ces deux éléments sont corrélés (corrélation typique des gisements alluvionnaires) pour les objets de La Tolita, des objets fabriqués par les civilisations côtières, ainsi que pour la figurine d'El Angel.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: A palladium-platinum correlation is typical of alluvial gold deposits.
- Findingown data
The hypothesis of a modern addition or reassembly of the left leg and foot plates is supported by the absence of platinum in the alloy of the suspect plates.
“Cette hypothèse est confortée par l'absence de platine dans l'alliage des plaques suspectes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Prehispanic La Tolita Tumaco goldwork alloys typically contain platinum, so its absence in an alloy indicates a modern addition.
- Findingown data
The blackish plate of the left eye of the El Angel figurine is composed of silver and copper.
“l'analyse de la plaque noirâtre de l'œil gauche montre qu'elle est composée d'argent et de cuivre”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingown data
The alloy of the supposed original parts of the El Angel figurine is quite different from that used in the manufacture of the parts supposed to be modern additions.
“Il s'avère donc que cet alliage est bien différent de celui utilisé dans la fabrication des parties que nous supposons être des ajouts modernes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
Objects from the Sierra regions have lower and more dispersed palladium and platinum contents.
“Les objets provenant des régions de la Sierra possèdent des teneurs plus basses et plus dispersées en palladium et platine.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The whitish plate of the right eye of the El Angel figurine was made with a gold-platinum alloy obtained by sintering.
“Notre analyse a montré que la plaque blanchâtre de l'œil droit a bien été fabriquée avec un alliage or-platine, obtenu par frittage (en anglais sintering, p. ex.Scott et Bray, 1994).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Scott et Bray, 1994
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Findingown data
X-radiography of the El Angel figurine allows understanding the assembly of the different hammered plates and wires used.
“La radiographie X pratiquée sur la figurine permet de comprendre le montage des différentes plaques obtenues par martelage et des fils utilisés (Figure 2).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The different elements constituting the El Angel figurine are assembled using wires.
“Les différents éléments constituant la figurine sont assemblés à l'aide de fils.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Comparison of this alloy with the composition of objects published by Bergsoe, 1937; Scott et Bouchard, 1988; Rovira, 1994; Scott et Bray, 1994; Estevez, 1998; Barrandon et al., 2004 and Valdez et al., 2005 shows that the El Angel figurine approaches the productions of the goldsmiths of the La Tolita Tumaco civilization.
“La comparaison de cet alliage avec la composition des objets publiés par Bergsoe, 1937 ;Scott et Bouchard, 1988 ;Rovira, 1994 ;Scott et Bray, 1994 ;Estevez, 1998 ;Barrandon et al., 2004et Valdez et al., 2005, montre que la figurine s'approche des réalisations des orfèvres de la civilisation La Tolita Tumaco.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Bergsoe, 1937
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Scott et Bouchard, 1988
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Rovira, 1994
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
These characteristics suggest the hypothesis of a reassembly of the main parts of the El Angel figurine after its discovery with a material of non-archaeological origin, at least in part.
“Ces caractéristiques suggèrent l'hypothèse d'un remontage des parties principales, après la découverte de l'œuvre avec un matériau d'origine non archéologique, au moins en partie.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The gold of the El Angel statuette approaches the gold of the alloys used by the different groups of goldsmiths who worked metal at La Tolita.
“L'or de la statuette d'El Angel s'approche bien de l'or des alliages utilisés par les différents groupes d'orfèvres qui ont travaillé le métal à La Tolita.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
There was therefore no articulation but an assembly in the original El Angel figurine.
“Il n'y avait donc pas d'articulation mais un assemblage.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The presence of platinoids in the parts judged ancient seems sufficient to indicate that most of the elements constituting the El Angel figurine appear original.
“La présence de platinoïdes dans les parties jugées antiques semble ainsi suffisante pour indiquer que la plupart des éléments constituant la figurine paraissent bien originaux.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
These results are in agreement with the conclusions of d'Harcourt published in 1948.
“Ces résultats sont en accord avec les conclusions de d'Harcourt publiées en 1948.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites d'Harcourt, 1948 source
- Interpretationreasoning
The wire surrounding the silver-copper eye of the El Angel figurine is necessarily modern.
“et il est donc nécessairement moderne.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Wire drawing was not used in prehispanic La Tolita Tumaco goldwork.
- Interpretationreasoning
The blackish plate of the left eye of the El Angel figurine is a posterior addition made during the reassembly of the left leg.
“ce serait un ajout postérieur effectué lors du remontage de la jambe gauche.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The greater thickness of the plates constituting the left leg and foot of the El Angel figurine seems to indicate an addition or reassembly posterior to discovery using two modern elements copied from the original right leg.
“La plus grande épaisseur des plaques constituant la jambe et le pied gauches de la figurine semble indiquer un ajout ou un remontage postérieur à la découverte à l'aide de deux éléments modernes copiés sur la jambe droite originale.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The right eye of the El Angel figurine has a composition conforming to what one would expect for a Tumaco La Tolita object.
“Il semble donc que l'œil droit ait une composition conforme à celle qu'on est en droit d'attendre pour un objet Tumaco La Tolita.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The articulation and mobility of the parts of the El Angel figurine were only a consequence of the modern restoration.
“Nous pouvons aussi remettre en question l'articulation et la mobilité des parties de la figurine : elles n'étaient qu'une simple conséquence de la restauration moderne.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The fact that the last type of alloy was unknown in prehispanic times confirms the hypothesis of a modern reassembly of the El Angel figurine.
“Le fait que le dernier type d'alliage soit inconnu à l'époque préhispanique confirme bien l'hypothèse d'un remontage moderne.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Brass was unknown in prehispanic times.
- Interpretationown data
By its composition, the gold used in the manufacture of the El Angel figurine possesses the characteristic elements expected for a goldwork of this cultural zone.
“Pourtant par sa composition, l'or utilisé dans la fabrication de la figurine possède les éléments caractéristiques espérés pour un travail d'orfèvrerie de cette zone culturelle.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The El Angel figurine would thus be one of the rare examples of objects exported far from its geocultural area.
“Cette figurine serait ainsi un des rares exemples d'objets exportés loin de son aire géoculturelle.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The absence of articulation in the original El Angel figurine is more consistent with the mounting of other known La Tolita Tumaco figurines.
“Cela est d'ailleurs plus conforme au montage d'autres figurines La Tolita Tumaco connues.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
If the El Angel figurine indeed comes from the El Angel site in Sierra, it was not found in the coastal fringe corresponding to the La Tolita Tumaco territory.
“La figurine, si elle provient bien du site d'El Angel, en Sierra, n'a donc pas été trouvée dans la frange côtière correspondant au territoire La Tolita Tumaco.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The El Angel site is located outside the La Tolita Tumaco cultural area, in the Sierra southwest of Tulcán, near the Chiles volcano, Carchi province, Ecuador.
- Interpretationown data
The suspect parts of the El Angel figurine, by their elemental compositions, correspond to a European metallurgy.
“Pour tenter d'évaluer l'époque de l'intervention moderne, on notera que les parties suspectes, de par leurs compositions élémentaires, correspondent à une métallurgie européenne.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- It may state two separate claims as one. 19
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
- Probably not a substantial claim. 5
It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataThe wires of the El Angel figurine can be smooth solid, blackish or yellow, and also tubular yellow.
“Les fils de la figurine d'El Angel peuvent être lisses pleins, d'aspect noirâtre (figure 3a) ou jaune, et aussi tubulaires de couleur jaune.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataDespite the use of solid smooth wires in both cases, the gold-platinum eye of the El Angel figurine is surrounded by a wire shaped by hammering, whose alloy has on average about 2% platinum.
“Malgré l'utilisation de fils lisses pleins dans les deux cas, l'œil en or-platine est entouré d'un fil façonné par martelage, dont l'alliage possède en moyenne environ 2 % de platine”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
FindingcitationThe iron content of the alloy is 3.3%, which falls within the typical values advanced by Scott (1998) for South American native platinum grains, typically 1 to 4%.
“La teneur en fer de l'alliage est de 3,3 % ce qui se situe dans les valeurs types avancées par Scott (1998) pour les grains de platine natif d'Amérique du Sud, typiquement de 1 à 4 %.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Scott (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataExamination and analysis of the El Angel figurine at LC2RMF reveal the shaping, assembly and decoration techniques used for its manufacture, and the presence of modern restorations by addition of certain parts.
“L'examen et l'analyse de la figurine du site El Angel au LC2RMF, études peu usuelles en archéologie préhispanique, mettent en évidence les techniques de mise en forme, assemblage et décoration utilisées pour sa fabrication mais aussi la présence de restaurations modernes par addition de certaines parties.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingnone givenThe El Angel figurine is composed of an assembly of 12 major elements, shaped from hammered gold sheets and assembled by metallic wires of different colors.
“L'œuvre est composée d'un assemblage de 12 éléments majeurs, façonnés en feuilles d'or martelées, puis mis en forme.Ils sont assemblés par des fils d'aspect métallique et de couleurs différentes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataAnalysis of the different elements supposed original of the El Angel figurine shows they were made from an alloy whose average composition is 77.7±2.1% gold, 10.8±1.0% silver, 8.0±1.0% copper and 2.5±0.4% platinum, with inclusions of platinoids identified by SEM-EDS and constituted of Ir, Pt and Os.
“L'analyse des différents éléments supposés originaux de la figurine d'El Angel montre qu'ils ont été fabriqués à partir d'un alliage dont la composition moyenne est de 77,7±2,1 % d'or, 10,8±1,0 % d'argent, 8,0±1,0 % de cuivre et 2,5±0,4 % de platine (remarquons la présence d'inclusions de platinoïdes, identifiées au MEB-EDS et constituées d'Ir, Pt et Os).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataIn some cases the assembly of the El Angel figurine is discreet, as for the junction of parts of the legs, but elsewhere it can be rather coarse and even made with twisted wires that protrude outside the figurine, particularly at the junction of the arms and shoulders.
“ailleurs, il peut être plutôt grossier et, même, fait au moyen de fils tortillés qui dépassent à l'extérieur de la figurine, en particulier à la jonction des bras et des épaules (figure 3b).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataThe silver-copper eye of the El Angel figurine is surrounded by a wire made by drawing, with an alloy without platinum.
“alors que l'œil en argent-cuivre est entouré d'un fil fabriqué par tréfilage, avec un alliage sans platine”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataAnalysis shows that the yellow wires of the El Angel figurine are made from gold alloys and the blackish wires are brass.
“Leur analyse montre que les fils jaunes sont fabriqués à partir d'alliages d'or et les fils noirâtres sont en laiton.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataAlloy analysis of the El Angel figurine revealed the type of gold used and allowed comparison with other productions of this geocultural area in order to research the provenance of the gold.
“L'analyse des alliages a aussi révélé le type d'or utilisé et permis la comparaison avec d'autres productions d'orfèvres de cette aire géoculturelle, de façon à entreprendre une recherche sur la provenance de l'or.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Findingnone givenOn the face of the El Angel figurine, two almond-shaped elements representing the eyes are fixed and surrounded by twisted wires.
“Sur le visage, deux éléments en amande représentant les yeux sont fixés et entourés de fils torsadés.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataThe assembly wires, the left eye wire and the left leg and foot plates of the El Angel figurine have an average composition of 75.8±1.1% gold, 18.1±1.3% silver and 5.1±0.5% copper; platinum could only be present in quantities below detection limits.
“En effet, les fils d'assemblage, le fil de l'œil gauche et les plaques de la jambe et pied gauches ont une composition moyenne de : 75,8±1,1 % d'or, 18,1±1,3 d'argent et 5,1±0,5 % de cuivre ; le platine ne pourrait être présent qu'à des quantités inférieures aux limites de détection.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationown dataNot only does the El Angel statuette present stylistic analogies of the coastal region, as emerges from the morphological and technological study, but especially the original parts of this work are very close in composition to the various goldwork products made from raw materials obtained in the same types of gold deposits.
“Non seulement la statuette d'El Angel présente des analogies stylistiques de cette région côtière, comme il ressort de l'étude morphologique et technologique, mais surtout les parties originales de cette œuvre sont très proches en composition des divers produits d'orfèvrerie réalisés à partir des matières premières obtenues dans les mêmes types de gisements aurifères.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningThe lower and more dispersed palladium and platinum contents of objects from the Sierra regions can be explained by the use of primary gold deposits as well as by a possible mixture of alluvial gold with vein gold.
“Ceci peut être expliqué par l'utilisation des gisements aurifères de type primaire ainsi que par un possible mélange d'or alluvionnaire avec de l'or filonien.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
PremisecitationAccording to Scott (2004), the wires used by goldsmiths of the La Tolita Tumaco civilization are typically shaped by hammering when the goal is to produce attachments of independently made parts.
“D'après Scott (Scott, 2004), les fils utilisés par les orfèvres de la civilisation La Tolita Tumaco sont typiquement façonnés par martelage quand le but est de produire des attaches de parties de fabrication indépendante.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Scott, 2004
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationDecoration wires used by La Tolita Tumaco goldsmiths are generally solid-twisted and hammered, but also sometimes tubular-twisted, or made of very fine gold sheet rolled on itself.
“En ce qui concerne les fils de décoration, ils sont généralement pleins-tordus et martelés, mais aussi parfois tubulaires-tordus (ou en très fine tôle d'or roulée sur elle-même).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Scott, 2004
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationown dataThe analyses and examinations carried out on the El Angel figurine suggest that it was subject to various modern interventions, in particular a clumsy reassembly and the addition of non-prehispanic parts.
“Les analyses et examens menés sur la figurine d'El Angel suggèrent bien qu'elle a fait l'objet de diverses interventions modernes, en particulier un remontage maladroit et l'ajout de parties non préhispaniques.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductown dataTo verify the attribution of the gold used in the manufacture of the original parts of the El Angel figurine to the alluvial deposits of the coast, the authors compared their results for trace elements with the compositions of various objects from La Tolita-Tumaco and Esmeraldas published by Barrandon et al., 2004 and Valdez et al., 2005.
“De façon à vérifier l'attribution de l'or utilisé dans la fabrication des parties originales aux gisements alluvionnaires de la côte, nous avons comparé nos résultats pour les éléments”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Barrandon et al., 2004
- cites Valdez et al., 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationThe presence of platinum group elements in golds of the Northwest South America region, as well as the composition of native platinum, have been known for many years thanks to analyses by Berzelius for Colombia and Wolf for Esmeraldas.
“La présence d'éléments du groupe du platine dans les ors de la région du Nord-Ouest de l'Amérique du Sud, ainsi que la composition du platine natif, sont connus depuis de longues années, grâce aux analyses effectuées au xix e siècle par Berzelius pour la Colombie (Berzelius, 1928) et par Wolf pour Esmeraldas (Wolf, 1912).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Berzelius, 1928
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Wolf, 1912
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
Interpretationown dataThe suspect parts of the El Angel figurine are the left eye (silver-copper alloy) and the wire of its contour, the left leg and, without doubt, the left foot, and most of the assembly wires, even all.
“Sont suspects : l'œil gauche (en alliage d'argent-cuivre) et le fil du contour de cet œil gauche, la jambe gauche et, sans doute, le pied gauche”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningOriginally, the El Angel figurine had certainly been assembled firmly and it was not possible to give it various postures by moving its limbs or head.
“À l'origine, elle avait certainement été assemblée fermement et il n'était pas possible de lui donner diverses postures en déplaçant ses membres ou sa tête.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationown dataThe analysis confirmed suspicions on some elements of the El Angel figurine, but the great majority of the main parts seem authentic and typical by their elemental composition of this La Tolita Tumaco goldwork.
“L'analyse a donc bien confirmé des soupçons sur quelques éléments de la figurine d'El Angel, mais, la grande majorité des parties principales semblent authentiques et typiques par leur composition élémentaire de cette orfèvrerie La Tolita Tumaco.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
The El Angel site is located outside the La Tolita Tumaco cultural area, in the Sierra southwest of Tulcán, near the Chiles volcano, Carchi province, Ecuador.
“Bien que provenant d'une région hors de l'aire culturelle Tumaco La Tolita (site El Angel, au sud-ouest de Tulcán, dans les environs du volcan Chiles, province du Carchi, Equateur), elle est considérée comme ayant été réalisée par les orfèvres de cette culture (Fig. 1).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Prehispanic La Tolita Tumaco goldwork alloys typically contain platinum, so its absence in an alloy indicates a modern addition.
“Cette hypothèse est confortée par l'absence de platine dans l'alliage des plaques suspectes.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Wire drawing was not used in prehispanic La Tolita Tumaco goldwork.
“avec un alliage sans platine, et il est donc nécessairement moderne.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Brass was unknown in prehispanic times.
“Le fait que le dernier type d'alliage soit inconnu à l'époque préhispanique confirme bien l'hypothèse d'un remontage moderne.”
The paper relies on this without support.
A palladium-platinum correlation is typical of alluvial gold deposits.
“Sur la Figure4ces deux éléments sont corrélés (corrélation typique des gisements alluvionnaires) pour les objets de La Tolita, des objets fabriqués par les civilisations côtières, ainsi que pour la figurine d'El Angel.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Wolf publication year differs between text and references
MinorThe text cites Wolf as 1912, but the corresponding reference lists 1892.
“et par Wolf pour Esmeraldas (Wolf, 1912).”
“19. WOLF, T. H., 1892. Geografía y geología del Ecuador”
Berzelius publication year differs between text and references
MinorThe text cites Berzelius as 1928, but the corresponding reference lists 1838.
“grâce aux analyses effectuées au xix e siècle par Berzelius pour la Colombie (Berzelius, 1928)”
“BERZELIUS, J.-J., 1838.Traité de chimie”
Citations
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The circulation of South American precious metals in Brazil at the end of the 17th century
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Self-citationEthnographie ancienne de l'Equateur
Verneau, R. (1912) · Gauthier-Villars eBooks · doi:10.5962/bhl.title.124488 · Cited by 22
The metallurgy and the technology of gold and platinum among the Pre-Columbian Indians
Bergsøe, P. (1937) · Cited by 20
Ancient Platinum Technology in South America: Its use by the Indians in Pre-Hispanic Times
Scott, D. A., & Bray, W. (1980) · Platinum Metals Review · doi:10.1595/003214080x244147157 · Cited by 20
Archéologie d'esmeraldas et de manabi, equateur (note complémentaire)
d'Harcourt, R. (1948) · Journal De La Société Des Américanistes · doi:10.3406/jsa.1948.2373 · Cited by 5
(2004)
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 11 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
A multi-analytical approach to gold in Ancient Egypt: Studies on provenance and corrosion
Tıssot, I., Troalen, L., Manso, M., Ponting, M. J., Radtke, M., Reinholz, U., Barreiros, M. A., Shaw, I., Carvalho, L., & Guerra, M. (2015) · Spectrochimica Acta Part B Atomic Spectroscopy · doi:10.1016/j.sab.2015.03.012 · Cited by 37
Self-citationLemasson, Q., Moignard, B., Pacheco, C., Pichon, L., & Guerra, M. (2015) · Talanta · doi:10.1016/j.talanta.2015.04.064 · Cited by 33
Self-citationMartinón‐Torres, M., Rojas, R. V., Samper, J. S., & Guerra, M. (2012) · Journal of Anthropological Archaeology · doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2012.03.006 · Cited by 28
Self-citationGuerra, M., & Tıssot, I. (2013) · Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms · doi:10.1016/j.nimb.2012.11.053 · Cited by 19
Self-citationCapítulo 24. El trabajo de los metales preciosos en el área andina: aportes arqueométricos
Guerra, M. (2018) · Institut français d’études andines eBooks · doi:10.4000/books.ifea.13150 · Cited by 1
Self-citationAgriculture précolombienne dans le pacifique colombo-équatorien
Ariza Pareja, M. A. (2026) · doi:10.70675/858d242dz87b5z4412z9b21z64dec129e4db
Metadata
- Authors
- Bouchard, J.-F., & Guerra, M. F.
- Affiliations
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (FR)
- Venue
- ArchéoSciences
- Publisher
- OpenEdition
- Published
- 2009
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 273-279
- ISSN
- 1960-1360 (ISSN-L)
- 2104-3728
- OpenAlex
- W300541415
- Cited by
- 6
- References
- 11
- Citations by year
- 2023: 1 · 2018: 1 · 2015: 2 · 2013: 1 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 2.50
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- fr
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- ArchéoSciences (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- HAL (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- Americanae (AECID Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- OpenEdition (OpenEdition) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Cultural Heritage Materials Analysis
- Social Sciences › Archeology › Metallurgy and Cultural Artifacts
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Amazonian Archaeology and Ethnohistory
- Keywords
- pre-Columbian archaeology, non-destructive analysis, gold alloy composition, goldsmithing techniques
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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