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Reverse engineering of ceramic anthropomorphic figurines from the Tumaco archaeological tradition in southwest Colombia
Open accessAbstract
Traditional studies of archaeological ceramics in Colombia have been largely based on visual and stylistic analyses. Here we introduce frameworks and concepts of reverse engineering as a complementary strategy to develop hypotheses about ceramic manufacture, as a first step to the address possible cross-craft relationships and broader sociocultural parameters affecting technical traditions. Our case study is focused on ceramic figurines recovered from two archaeological sites in southwest Colombia (Inguapí and La Cocotera), both dated to the period of greatest cultural and technological development of the Tumaco tradition (350 BC–AD 350). The results of the analyses including microscopy, XRF, SEM-EDS and XRD revealed two manufacturing pathways within the broader tradition, developed locally and adapted to the natural resources available to each site. These are shown through chemical and mineralogical differences in the raw materials, as well as differences in their preparation and shaping, molding, and modeling processes as observed at the microstructural level. Estimated firing temperatures are under 600°C for La Cocotera, and under 800°C for those of Inguapí, with an inhomogeneous, oxidizing atmosphere probably related to firing in a pit. The superficial characterization shows that all the figurines were painted, with those from Inguapí externally smoothed and polished, and those from La Cocotera covered with a slip. Notwithstanding differences between sites, the ceramic figurines illustrate a particular technical style that undoubtedly conveyed a shared ideological message of cultural affiliation. These results contribute in an innovative way to archaeological ceramic studies in Colombia from a different perspective that is complementary to the more common typological studies.
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TL;DR
Reverse engineering of ceramic anthropomorphic figurine fragments from Inguapí and La Cocotera in the Tumaco tradition (350 BC–AD 350) identified two distinct local manufacturing pathways. The pathways differ in raw materials, shaping, firing temperature, and finishing despite a shared stylistic and ideological tradition.
Key findings
- Raw materials differed by site: Inguapí fragments had higher SiO₂ (55–60%) and Al₂O₃ (21–26%), while La Cocotera fragments had lower SiO₂ (46–52%) and Al₂O₃ (15–19%), higher alkali/alkaline earth oxides, higher Fe₂O₃ (21–28% vs. 13–17%), and higher TiO₂ (average 4.1% vs. 1.2%). Mineralogically, Inguapí samples contained illite, kaolinite, albite, hornblende, and quartz; La Cocotera samples contained montmorillonite, kaolinite, plagioclase, hornblende, muscovite, quartz, and anatase.
- Shaping differed: Inguapí figurines were shaped by modeling, with direct modeling traces, incisions, and appliqué decoration; La Cocotera figurines were shaped by molding, with concave geometry, finger impressions, and a mold (CO06/CO07) matching fragment CO08.
- Firing temperatures were estimated below 600°C for La Cocotera and below 800°C for Inguapí; specific estimates include IN03 at 699–739°C and CO09 at 540–586°C. All samples showed an inhomogeneous, oxidizing atmosphere, no vitrification, and dark cores consistent with open/pit firing.
- Finishing differed: all figurines were painted, but Inguapí pieces were externally smoothed and polished, while La Cocotera pieces were covered with a slip.
Methods
- The study applied a reverse engineering framework with six methodological stages, using a powder technology model with four manufacturing stages: raw material, shaping, thermal treatment, and finishing.
- Nine ceramic figurine fragments were analyzed: IN01–IN05 from Inguapí (Bouchard project, 1977–78) and CO06–CO09 from La Cocotera (Patiño project, 1986–1988), all from the Tumaco tradition’s second phase (350 BC–AD 350), mangrove physiographic zone, and midden/domestic/ceremonial/funerary contexts.
- Analyses included XRF for bulk chemistry, XRD for mineralogy and firing-temperature estimates, petrographic thin-section microscopy, SEM-EDS for microstructure and inclusions, and macro/micro surface examination for shaping and finishing traces.
Limitations
- The paper states that further studies should validate the proposed manufacturing hypotheses and expand the range of sites, ceramic types, and possible cross-craft interactions. It also notes that technological information on Colombian archaeological ceramics is limited and non-existent for the tradition under study, restricting comparison.
- Evident from the text: the sample is small—nine fragments from two sites—so the two-pathway interpretation is site-specific and not necessarily representative of the broader Tumaco tradition.
- Evident from the text: firing temperatures are estimated from XRD phase transformations and experimental comparisons rather than direct kiln or firing-structure evidence, and the manufacturing hypotheses are proposed for future validation.
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- Findingown data
The analyses including microscopy, XRF, SEM-EDS and XRD revealed two manufacturing pathways within the broader Tumaco tradition.
“The results of the analyses including microscopy, XRF, SEM-EDS and XRD revealed two manufacturing pathways within the broader tradition, developed locally and adapted to the natural resources available to each site.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
All the figurines were painted.
“The superficial characterization shows that all the figurines were painted, with those from Inguapí externally smoothed and polished, and those from La Cocotera covered with a slip.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Estimated firing temperatures for Inguapí figurines are under 800°C.
“Estimated firing temperatures are under 600°C for La Cocotera, and under 800°C for those of Inguapí, with an inhomogeneous, oxidizing atmosphere probably related to firing in a pit.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
La Cocotera figurines were covered with a slip.
“The superficial characterization shows that all the figurines were painted, with those from Inguapí externally smoothed and polished, and those from La Cocotera covered with a slip.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Estimated firing temperatures for La Cocotera figurines are under 600°C.
“Estimated firing temperatures are under 600°C for La Cocotera, and under 800°C for those of Inguapí, with an inhomogeneous, oxidizing atmosphere probably related to firing in a pit.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingown data
Inguapí figurines were externally smoothed and polished.
“The superficial characterization shows that all the figurines were painted, with those from Inguapí externally smoothed and polished, and those from La Cocotera covered with a slip.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Traces of parallel lines, suggestive of smoothing or superficial polishing, are only present in IN samples.
“Among the differences, we note the traces of parallel lines, suggestive of smoothing or superficial polishing, which are only present in IN samples (Fig 13A).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The firing temperature of the CO09 figurine is estimated between 540°C and 586°C.
“The similarities in the colored areas revealed in the overlap of colors (rectangular and circular) allow us to estimate the firing temperature of the CO09 figurine between 540°C and 586°C.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Iron sulfide inclusions were identified only in CO samples.
“Conversely, iron sulfide inclusions (Fig 8B) were identified only in CO samples”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The non-plastic inclusions identified include quartz, feldspar, mica, amphibole, rock fragments, pumice, volcanic glass, and some opaque minerals.
“Regarding the inclusion, an abundance between 20% and 30% of non-plastic inclusion was estimated, among which we could identified quartz, feldspar, mica, amphibole, rock fragments, pumice, volcanic glass, some opaque minerals in the thin sections.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The presence of reflection at 4.48 Ǻ (19.77 2θ) corresponds to illite.
“The last transformation was detected in the diffraction patterns of samples IN04 and IN05 and particularly in the presence of reflection at 4.48 Ǻ (19.77 2θ) that corresponds to illite.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Evidence of direct modeling on clay to manually shape the ankle and sole of the foot was found in sample IN01.
“Evidence of direct modeling on clay to manually shape the ankle and sole of the foot (Fig 9, white arrows), was found in sample IN01, taken as representative of this group of figurines.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
A dark patch was observed on the external face of the fragment in figurine CO09, resembling a slight smoky trace.
“Finally, a dark patch was observed on the external face of the fragment in figurine CO09, resembling a slight smoky trace that is suggestive of direct exposure to a flame, as also typical of an open fire or bonfire firing system.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Compact and homogeneous microstructures were not observed in the petrographic thin sections.
“Fig 6 show the petrographic thin sections of samples PPL and XP, in which compact and homogeneous microstructures were not observed, the above indicated the use of unrefined materials.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Incisions were used to demarcate features such as fingers (IN01), legs (IN03) and ears (IN05).
“Finally, incisions were used to demarcate features such as fingers (IN01), legs (IN03) and ears (IN05).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
An abundance between 20% and 30% of non-plastic inclusion was estimated.
“Regarding the inclusion, an abundance between 20% and 30% of non-plastic inclusion was estimated, among which we could identified quartz, feldspar, mica, amphibole, rock fragments, pumice, volcanic glass, some opaque minerals in the thin sections.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Kaolinite Al2(Si2O5)(OH) is present in all samples.
“The results obtained by XRD showed the presence of kaolinite Al2(Si2O5)(OH) in all samples, but clearly allowed the discrimination between two different mineralogical groups: in the first group, samples from Inguapí presented illite and kaolinite clay minerals, with sodium feldspar (albite)], amphiboles (hornblende) and quartz (Fig 5A).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingcitation
The few sherds with anatase showed a white (lighter) coloration.
“Interestingly, the few sherds with anatase were showed a white (lighter) coloration [47, 48].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [47] E Galán, 2006
- cites [48] C Guillem, 1988, Materias primas cerámicas. Yacimientos de Arcillas y Caolines, Boletín de la Sociedad Españolad de la Cerámica y el Vidrio
- Findingown data
La Cocotera samples report higher contents of alkali and alkaline earth metal oxides (Na2O, K2O, MgO and CaO) than Inguapí samples.
“Conversely, La Cocotera samples report higher contents of alkali and alkaline earth metal oxides (Na2O, K2O, MgO and CaO).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Bulk silica and alumina levels for La Cocotera fragments are lower (46-52% and 15-19%, respectively) than those for Inguapí (55-60% and 21-26%).
“Table 5 shows the following differences between sites: first, the bulk silica and alumina levels for La Cocotera fragments are lower (46–52% and 15–19%, respectively) than those for Inguapí (55–60% and 21–26%).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Inguapí samples presented illite and kaolinite clay minerals, with sodium feldspar (albite), amphiboles (hornblende) and quartz.
“in the first group, samples from Inguapí presented illite and kaolinite clay minerals, with sodium feldspar (albite)], amphiboles (hornblende) and quartz (Fig 5A).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The presence of clay pellets for the La Cocotera group of samples was not detected in the Inguapí group.
“The third difference corresponds to the presence of clay pellets for La Cocotera group of samples, (Fig 6, CO), which were not detected in the Inguapí group (Fig 6, IN).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Diatoms were present exclusively in IN samples.
“Of note here is their presence exclusively in IN samples.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Titania is remarkably high at La Cocotera (average 4.1% compared to 1.2% at Inguapí).
“Iron oxide levels are high in both sites, but especially so at La Cocotera (21–28% Fe2O3, compared to 13–17% at Inguapí), where they are also matched by remarkably high titania (average 4.1% compared to 1.2% at Inguapí).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
These characteristics were common to all the figurines analyzed.
“These characteristics were common to all the figurines analyzed.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In CO samples, traces of a milky white slip were documented.
“Instead, in CO samples we documented the presence of traces of a milky white slip (Fig 13B)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The firing temperature of the IN03 figurine is estimated between 699°C and 739°C.
“The similarities in the colored areas revealed in the overlap of colors (rectangular and circular) allow us to estimate the firing temperature of the IN03 figurine between 699°C and 739°C.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Diatoms were detected in the Inguapí fragments.
“Additionally, diatoms were detected in the Inguapí fragments, of the type and morphology shown in Fig 8A.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Traces of red paint are common to IN and CO.
“Among the evidence common to IN and CO, we point out the presence of traces of red paint–a frequent feature in ceramic figurines of this tradition.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Volcanic glasses and pumice were morphologically identified in the polished samples and fresh fractures of all the samples.
“Volcanic glasses and pumice were morphologically identified in the polished samples and fresh fractures of all the samples.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The inhomogeneous, oxidizing atmosphere is probably related to firing in a pit.
“Estimated firing temperatures are under 600°C for La Cocotera, and under 800°C for those of Inguapí, with an inhomogeneous, oxidizing atmosphere probably related to firing in a pit.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
The two manufacturing pathways were developed locally and adapted to the natural resources available to each site.
“The results of the analyses including microscopy, XRF, SEM-EDS and XRD revealed two manufacturing pathways within the broader tradition, developed locally and adapted to the natural resources available to each site.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given
The ceramic figurines illustrate a particular technical style that conveyed a shared ideological message of cultural affiliation.
“Notwithstanding differences between sites, the ceramic figurines illustrate a particular technical style that undoubtedly conveyed a shared ideological message of cultural affiliation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Maritan et al. 2006 showed that illite decomposition occurs at much lower temperatures, close to 800°C.
“Maritan et al. 2006] showed that this decomposition occurs at much lower temperatures, close to 800°C [54].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [54] L Maritan, 2006, Influence of firing conditions on ceramic products: Experimental study on clay rich in organic matter, Applied Clay Science source
- Premisecitation
When minerals that make up clay are subjected to thermal treatments, they undergo alterations such as a change in their crystalline structure and atomic spacing as a result of progressive hydroxylation.
“This last experimental approach considers that when the minerals that make up the clay are subjected to thermal treatments, they undergo alterations such as the change in their crystalline structure and atomic spacing as a result of progressive hydroxylation [44].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [44] P Rice, 1987
- Interpretationown data
The crystalline transformation of SiO2 quartz from the α-ß phase at 572.9°C [846K] was used as a reference for estimating the temperature of samples from figurines IN01, CO06, CO07, CO08 and CO09, all estimated to be less than 600°C.
“The crystalline transformation of SiO2 quartz from the α-ß phase at 572.9°C [846K] was used as a reference for estimating the temperature of samples from figurines IN01, CO06, CO07, CO08 and CO09, all estimated to be less than 600°C.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Detailed optical analysis of the mold identified as CO06 and CO07, and of matching features in figurine fragment CO08, suggest that this object was shaped using the mold studied.
“Moreover, the detailed optical analysis of the mold identified as CO06 and CO07, and of matching features in figurine fragment CO08, suggest that this object was indeed shaped using the mold studied.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The observed surface coloration and cross-section characteristics were taken as evidence of the atmosphere, time and type of firing used.
“These characteristics were taken as evidence of the atmosphere, time and type of firing used.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Identifying the mineral phases originally present and documenting how some decompose and others form in refiring experiments at different temperatures provides information on the firing temperatures reached during the original manufacture.
“Hence, identifying the mineral phases originally present and documenting how some decompose and others form in refiring experiments at different temperatures provides information on the firing temperatures reached during the original manufacture [45].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [45] M Bayazit, 2016, Archaeometric investigation of the Late Chalcolithic-Early Bronze Age I and the 1 st-2nd millennium BCE potteries from kuriki-Turkey, Applied Clay Science source
- Interpretationown data
The lack of compact and homogeneous microstructures indicates the use of unrefined materials.
“Fig 6 show the petrographic thin sections of samples PPL and XP, in which compact and homogeneous microstructures were not observed, the above indicated the use of unrefined materials.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The IN figurines were fired at temperatures below 800°C.
“The IN figurines were fired at temperatures below 800°C, while the CO fragments estimated temperatures did not exceed the 600°C.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The detected mineral phases and microstructures in the fragments reflect original manufacturing conditions and not post-depositional alteration.
- Interpretationreasoning
It is likely that these figurines were produced at workshops at, or near, the sites where they are recovered, adapting to local raw materials, customs and knowledge.
“It is likely that these figurines were produced at workshops at, or near, the sites where they are recovered, adapting to local raw materials, customs and knowledge.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The raw materials used to make the figurines were locally available or procured at or near the sites where the figurines were recovered.
- Interpretationown data
The detected elemental and mineralogical differences indicate the use of two different types of raw material sources for the elaboration of the same representation of ceramic objects.
“Overall, it can be concluded that the detected elemental and mineralogical differences indicate the use of two different types of raw material sources for the elaboration of the same representation of ceramic objects.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The detected mineral phases and microstructures in the fragments reflect original manufacturing conditions and not post-depositional alteration.
- Interpretationreasoning
The pores left after firing in Inguapí samples may correspond to organic matter naturally present in the raw material.
“It may be proposed that the pores left after firing in Inguapí samples correspond to organic matter naturally present in the raw material, while those from La Cocotera could correspond to the microstructural change caused by the crystalline transformation of quartz (SiO2)when fired to temperatures above ~575°C.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The dark patch is suggestive of direct exposure to a flame, as also typical of an open fire or bonfire firing system.
“Finally, a dark patch was observed on the external face of the fragment in figurine CO09, resembling a slight smoky trace that is suggestive of direct exposure to a flame, as also typical of an open fire or bonfire firing system.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
Two different shaping methods were used to give shape or geometry to the figurines.
“In summary, the results obtained using the proposed methodology allowed the following hypothesis to be formulated for the shaping stage: two different shaping methods were used to give shape or geometry to the figurines. Evidence from macrostructural (direct modeling traces to shape the clay and applique decoration) examination indicates that the figurines from Inguapí were shaped by modeling.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
The diffractogram for sample IN02 shows this reflection, which indicates that ceramic was not subjected to temperatures above 650°C.
“The diffractogram for sample IN02 shows this reflection, which indicates that ceramic was not subjected to temperatures above 650°C.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The potters from Inguapí and La Cocotera made technological decisions related to the ceramic paste making and the forming technique.
“As an addition to this, we suggest that the potters from Inguapí and La Cocotera made technological decisions related to the ceramic paste making and the forming technique.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Macrostructural evidence from the figurines from La Cocotera indicates that they were shaped by molding.
“Conversely, macrostructural evidence (concave shape and pressure marks on the back of the reproductions) from the figurines from La Cocotera indicate that they were shaped by molding.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
According to experimental works, the illite reflection at 4.48 Å suffers a gradual decrease in intensity until it disappears at 1000°C.
“According to experimental works, this reflection suffers a gradual decrease in intensity until it disappears at 1000°C [56].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [56] A Aras, 2004, The change of phase composition in kaolinite- and illite-rich clay-based ceramic bodies, Applied Clay Science source
- Interpretationown data
Evidence observed in fragments CO08 and CO09, such as the concave geometry and traces of finger impressions left on the back of the objects, suggest that the technique used was molding.
“The evidence observed in fragments CO08 and CO09, such as the concave geometry and traces of finger impressions left on the back of the objects, suggest that the technique used was molding.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Archaeological evidence places Tumaco-La Tolita figurines mainly in middens, and to a lesser extent in funerary contexts.
“In this case, archaeological evidence places the Tumaco-La Tolita figurines mainly in middens, and to a lesser extent, in funerary contexts [7, 19].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [7] D Patiño, 2003
- cites [19] Á Ramírez, 2006, El concepto de estilo en Arqueología: Análisis estilístico de figurinas antropomorfas Tumaco-La Tolita, un estudio de caso. Museo Arqueológico Casa del Marqués de San Jorge., Inversa
- Interpretationown data
Based on the frequency and angular shape or geometry of quartz, intentional addition and previous crushing in thin sections can be suggested.
“Based on the frequency and angular shape or geometry of quartz, we can suggest intentional addition and previous crushing in thin sections Their addition improves refractory properties and reduces volumetric change in clays due to the thermal effect [49, 50].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The pores from La Cocotera could correspond to the microstructural change caused by the crystalline transformation of quartz when fired to temperatures above ~575°C.
“It may be proposed that the pores left after firing in Inguapí samples correspond to organic matter naturally present in the raw material, while those from La Cocotera could correspond to the microstructural change caused by the crystalline transformation of quartz (SiO2)when fired to temperatures above ~575°C.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
A lower manual contact required for modeling caused the ceramic paste of the figurines of La Cocotera to be thicker, coarser and poorly blended.
“On the contrary, a lower manual contact required for modeling caused the ceramic paste of the figurines of La Cocotera to be thicker, coarser and poorly blended.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
At the microstructural level, smoothing patterns were observed which indicated mechanical abrasion or polishing.
“At the microstructural level, smoothing patterns were observed which indicated mechanical of abrasion or polishing; at the macrostructural level, paint remains, and the use of slip were identified.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Despite sharing a style that reflects a shared ideology, technological choices reflective of a standardized industry are not observed.
“Despite sharing a style that reflects a shared ideology, technological choices reflective of a standardized industry are not observed.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Shared style among the figurines reflects a shared ideology.
- Premiseown data
An associated charcoal sample from La Cocotera reported the date Beta20603: 1840±60 (52-335 calAD).
“An associated charcoal sample form the site reported the date Beta20603: 1840±60 (52–335 calAD).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
This is characteristic of open fires where the maximum temperature is low and/or held for short periods only.
“This is characteristic of open fires where the maximum temperature is low and/or held for short periods only [45, 57]”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [45] M Bayazit, 2016, Archaeometric investigation of the Late Chalcolithic-Early Bronze Age I and the 1 st-2nd millennium BCE potteries from kuriki-Turkey, Applied Clay Science source
- cites [57] O Rye, 1981
- Interpretationown data
The CO fragments estimated temperatures did not exceed 600°C.
“The IN figurines were fired at temperatures below 800°C, while the CO fragments estimated temperatures did not exceed the 600°C.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The detected mineral phases and microstructures in the fragments reflect original manufacturing conditions and not post-depositional alteration.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 40
- Probably not a substantial claim. 15
It may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationCharcoal samples from Inguapí strata yielded dates Ny639: 2220 ± 85BP (431-41 calBC at 94.9% probability) and Ny640: 2000 ± 80BP (203 calBC-241 calAD at 95.4% probability).
“Charcoal samples from these strata yielded the following dates: Ny639: 2220 ± 85BP (431–41 calBC at 94.9% probability) and Ny640: 2000 ± 80BP (203 calBC– 241 calAD at 95.4% probability) (both dates calibrated with OxCal v.4.3.2, IntCal 13) [10, 25].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked- cites [10] JF Bouchard, 1983, Excavaciones arqueológicas en la región de Tumaco., Revista Colombiana de Antropología source
The “DATACIONES 14-C > 1) Región de Tumaco” table lists Ny 639 and Ny 640 at Inguapí with the claimed 2220 ± 85 BP and 2000 ± 80 BP dates. It does not report the calibrated calendar ranges or probabilities; those appear to be calculations supplied by the citing authors, not dates stated in this source. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites [25] J-F Bouchard, 1977, Investigaciones arqueológicas en la Costa Pacífica Meridional de Colombia. El proyecto Tumaco, Revista Colombiana de Antropología source
It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataThe two manufacturing pathways are shown through chemical and mineralogical differences in the raw materials, as well as differences in preparation and shaping, molding, and modeling processes observed at the microstructural level.
“These are shown through chemical and mineralogical differences in the raw materials, as well as differences in their preparation and shaping, molding, and modeling processes as observed at the microstructural level.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataThe firing atmosphere was inhomogeneous and oxidizing.
“Estimated firing temperatures are under 600°C for La Cocotera, and under 800°C for those of Inguapí, with an inhomogeneous, oxidizing atmosphere probably related to firing in a pit.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataLa Cocotera ceramic samples contained montmorillonite and kaolinite clay minerals, along with plagioclase, amphiboles (hornblende), mica (muscovite), quartz and anatase.
“In the second group, which comprised La Cocotera ceramic samples, montmorillonite and kaolinite clay minerals were detected, along with plagioclase, amphiboles (hornblende), mica (muscovite), quartz and anatase (Fig 5B).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataPores in the IN group were fine-sized and presented vesicular shapes, while for the CO group these were planar and/or vough shaped and showed a greater length.
“Regarding pore shape the pores in the IN group where fine-sized and presented vesicular shapes (Fig 6, IN), while for the CO group these were planar and/or vough shaped and showed a greater length (Fig 6, CO).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataIn Inguapí potsherds, the fine inclusions fraction (20-140 microns) represented an average of 90% of the section, while in sherds from La Cocotera the fine fraction was less than 60%.
“In Inguapí (IN) potsherds, the fine inclusions fraction (determined between 20 and 140 microns) represented an average of 90% of the section, while in sherds from La Cocotera [CO], the fine fraction was less than 60%, Table 6 lists the quantitative characterization of aplastic inclusions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataThe main differences in the thin sections were the size of inclusions, pores shape and type of some inclusions.
“The main differences in the thin sections were the size of inclusions, pores shape and type of some inclusions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataAt the macrostructural level, paint remains and the use of slip were identified.
“At the microstructural level, smoothing patterns were observed which indicated mechanical of abrasion or polishing; at the macrostructural level, paint remains, and the use of slip were identified.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataFig 12B shows the microstructure of IN01 under higher magnification, where individual clay minerals and the lack of vitrification can be noticed.
“Fig 12A shows a cross-section of IN01, displaying a dark core coloration with bright exterior surfaces; Fig 12B shows the microstructure this same sherd under higher magnification, where individual clay minerals and the lack of vitrification can be noticed.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataSamples CO8 and CO09 show a smooth and regular surface, but such linear patterns were not observed.
“Although samples CO8 and CO09 show a smooth and regular surface, such linear patterns were not observed.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Findingown dataFig 12A shows a cross-section of IN01, displaying a dark core coloration with bright exterior surfaces.
“Fig 12A shows a cross-section of IN01, displaying a dark core coloration with bright exterior surfaces; Fig 12B shows the microstructure this same sherd under higher magnification, where individual clay minerals and the lack of vitrification can be noticed.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataApplied decoration is observed in the bracelet in IN02 and the eyes in IN04.
“In addition, applied decoration is observed in the bracelet in IN02 and the eyes in IN04 (see Fig 2).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataUniformity or differences were observed in the surface coloration and the sample cross section.
“Uniformity or differences were observed in the surface coloration and the sample cross section.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataIron oxide levels are high in both sites, but especially so at La Cocotera (21-28% Fe2O3, compared to 13-17% at Inguapí).
“Iron oxide levels are high in both sites, but especially so at La Cocotera (21–28% Fe2O3, compared to 13–17% at Inguapí), where they are also matched by remarkably high titania (average 4.1% compared to 1.2% at Inguapí).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
PremisecitationThe Tumaco archaeological tradition extended about 500 kilometers along the Pacific coast, from Buenaventura in Colombia to Atacames in Ecuador.
“This tradition reveals valuable information on the human use of tropical jungle environments since it geographically extended for about 500 kilometers along the Pacific coast, from Buenaventura in Colombia to Atacames in Ecuador [1].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [1] DA Scott, 2011, La Tolita-Tumaco Culture: Master metalsmiths in gold and platinum, Latin American Antiquity source
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationThe second phase of the Tumaco tradition lasted from 350 BC to 350 AD and is considered a climax of social and technological complexity.
“This phase lasted from 350 BC to 350 AD and, it is considered a climax of social and technological complexity of this tradition [5–7, 10, 11].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 5 sources checked- cites [5] F Valdez, 1987
- cites [6] D Patiño, 1992, Sociedades Tumaco-La Tolita: Costa Pacífica de Colombia y Ecuador, Boletín de Arqueología Fundación de Investigaciones Arqueológicas
- cites [7] D Patiño, 2003
- cites [10] JF Bouchard, 1983, Excavaciones arqueológicas en la región de Tumaco., Revista Colombiana de Antropología source
- cites [11] H Salgado, 1995, Alfarería Prehispánica Temprana [I Milenio A.C.] entre la bahía de Buenventura y el bajo Río San Juan Pacífico Colombiano, Boletín de Arqueología de la Fundación de Investigaciones Arqueológicas Nacionales
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
PremisecitationNearly 4500 figurines have been described in detail focusing on stylistic and iconographic examination.
“The previously mentioned characteristics have been complemented with detailed descriptions of nearly 4500 figurines, focusing on stylistic and iconographic examination [9, 17–20].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 5 sources checked- cites [9] MF Ugalde, 2009
- cites [17] C Di Capua, 1994, Valdivia Figurines and Puberty Rituals: An Hypothesis, Andean Past 4
- cites [18] E Ferdon, 1940, Reconnaissance in Esmeraldas [primera parte], El Palacio. XLVII [12]
- cites [19] Á Ramírez, 2006, El concepto de estilo en Arqueología: Análisis estilístico de figurinas antropomorfas Tumaco-La Tolita, un estudio de caso. Museo Arqueológico Casa del Marqués de San Jorge., Inversa
- cites [20] E Sánchez, 1981
It may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationA considerable number of figurine fragments recovered during the second phase were found predominantly in domestic and residential contexts, and also in middens, funerary, and ceremonial contexts.
“A considerable number of figurine fragments recovered during this phase, found predominately in domestic and residential contexts, was also found in the context of middens, funerary, and ceremonial contexts [7, 10, 12–15].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 6 sources checked- cites [7] D Patiño, 2003
- cites [10] JF Bouchard, 1983, Excavaciones arqueológicas en la región de Tumaco., Revista Colombiana de Antropología source
- cites [12] J Cubillos, 1955
- cites [13] Patiño D. Asentamientos prehispánicos en la Costa Pacífica Caucana. Banco de la República FIAN, editor. Bogotá1988.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites [14] H Salgado, 1993, Metalurgia Prehispánica y colonial-Republicana en el Pacífico Colombiano, Revista Colombiana de Antropología
- cites [15] H Salgado, 1995
It may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationResearchers' hypotheses about the meaning and use of the figurines are limited by lack of written sources, inconsistencies in time frame and cultural codes, and absence of archaeological contexts for most figurines.
“However, they are limited by the lack of written sources, inconsistencies in both the time frame and the cultural codes, and particularly the absence of archeological contexts for most of the figurines related to this tradition [9, 13, 15, 17–21].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 8 sources checked- cites [9] MF Ugalde, 2009
- cites [13] Patiño D. Asentamientos prehispánicos en la Costa Pacífica Caucana. Banco de la República FIAN, editor. Bogotá1988.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites [15] H Salgado, 1995
- cites [17] C Di Capua, 1994, Valdivia Figurines and Puberty Rituals: An Hypothesis, Andean Past 4
- cites [18] E Ferdon, 1940, Reconnaissance in Esmeraldas [primera parte], El Palacio. XLVII [12]
- cites [19] Á Ramírez, 2006, El concepto de estilo en Arqueología: Análisis estilístico de figurinas antropomorfas Tumaco-La Tolita, un estudio de caso. Museo Arqueológico Casa del Marqués de San Jorge., Inversa
- cites [20] E Sánchez, 1981
- cites [21] K Stothert, 2003
It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationown dataOur results identified clear and consistent differences in the manufacturing processes leading to the same type of representation (ceramic figurines), which indicate distinct technological choices at each of the two sites analysed.
“Our results identified clear and consistent differences in the manufacturing processes leading to the same type of representation (ceramic figurines), which indicate distinct technological choices at each of the two sites analysed.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The analyzed fragments are representative of the original ceramic figurines and their manufacturing processes.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationnone givenThe presence of clay pellets could be the result of a lack of mixing or incomplete kneading of the ceramic paste.
“The presence of this material could be the result of a lack of mixing or incomplete kneading of the ceramic paste.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationTumaco ceramic figurines illustrate a culturally cohesive tradition through a characteristic style in which the figurines show a naturalistic expression and anatomy, and motifs that are repeated with the same characteristics, produced by different artists who apparently did not have much creative freedom.
“In particular, Tumaco ceramic figurines illustrate a culturally cohesive tradition through a characteristic “style” in which the figurines show a naturalistic expression and anatomy, and motifs that are repeated with the same characteristics, produced by different artists who apparently do not appear to have had much creative freedom [9].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [9] MF Ugalde, 2009
Probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationThe formulation of manufacturing hypotheses was based on the powder technology model, which includes four processing stages: obtaining and preparing raw material, shaping or geometry, thermal treatment, and finishing.
“The formulation of hypothesis was based on the powder technology model, which is currently the most common method of manufacturing ceramic artefacts as well as some metals (powder metallurgy), and which includes four processing stages: 1) obtaining and preparing the raw material, 2) shaping or geometry, 3) thermal treatment and 4)finishing [40].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [40] R German, 2005
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Study design and conductnone givenSEM-EDS results are averages of measurements with a 95% confidence interval.
“The conditions used for the analysis are listed in Table 3 and the results are average of measurements with a 95% confidence interval.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Study design and conductown dataSelected samples were recovered from the same physiographic zone and the same contexts.
“environmentally, all the samples were recovered from the same physiographic zone (mangrove, interfluvial, floodplain or fluvial plain) and the same contexts: middens, habitation sites, ceremonial centers, and/or funerary contexts.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationown dataThe use of reverse engineering as a methodological tool allowed the materials characterization of the Tumaco ceramic figurine fragments, and the formulation of hypotheses regarding their manufacture.
“The use of reverse engineering as a methodological tool allowed the materials characterization of the Tumaco ceramic figurine fragments, and the formulation of hypotheses regarding their manufacture.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationcitationThe presence and chemical composition of volcanic glasses are consistent with the volcanism of the Andean zone between Colombia and Ecuador.
“Their presence and chemical composition are consistent with the volcanism of the Andean zone between Colombia and Ecuador [51].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [51] J Galvis, 1992, Vulcanismo Terciario al Sur de la Isla de Mompox [Parte Nororiental de la Serranía de San Lucas], Revista de la Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales
It may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationThe addition of quartz improves refractory properties and reduces volumetric change in clays due to thermal effect.
“Their addition improves refractory properties and reduces volumetric change in clays due to the thermal effect [49, 50].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedIt may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningThe microstructural and macrostructural evidences suggest all the ceramic objects here examined were fired in open fire structures, in an oxidizing atmosphere and at relatively low temperatures.
“However, the microstructural and macrostructural evidences suggest all the ceramic objects here examined were fired in an open fire structures, in an oxidizing atmosphere and at relatively low temperatures.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationown dataThe two groups of figurines, corresponding to the two archaeological sites, were made with two types of raw material, as indicated by their chemical, mineralogical and microstructural differences.
“It is proposed that the two groups of figurines, corresponding to the two archaeological sites, were made with two types of raw material, as indicated by their chemical, mineralogical and microstructural differences.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The two groups of figurines correspond to the two archaeological sites and represent distinct production contexts.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationown dataThe difference in inclusion size is an indicator of a probable selection of material used as temper for the figurines made in Inguapí, namely fine quartz rich sands, a choice not made at La Cocotera.
“The difference in size is an indicator of a probable selection of material that was used as temper for the figurines made in Inguapí, namely fine quartz rich sands a choice not made at La Cocotera.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningThese differences are reflective of the origins and initial processing of the raw material and thus reflect technological choices related to the availability of raw materials and the recipes followed by the potters.
“These differences are reflective of the origins and initial processing of the raw material and thus reflect technological choices related to the availability of raw materials and the recipes followed by the potters.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationUnder oxidizing conditions, chlorite begins its thermal transformation by decomposition at 500°C, while reflection [1] disappears at 650°C.
“These works reported that under oxidizing conditions, chlorite begins its thermal transformation by decomposition at 500°C, while reflection [1] disappears at 650°C.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisenone givenThe Tumaco tradition involved mass production of similar-looking ceramic figurines over a ~500 km stretch of geography and for over 700 years.
“Considering the mass production of similar-looking ceramic figurines over a ~ 500 km stretch of geography and for over 700 years, it is appropriate to ask the extent to which technical choices show technological variability or homogeneity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningIn these figurines, the incision is clean, without a ridge or excess material, which indicates that this operation was performed on the clay in a semi-dry state.
“In these figurines, the incision is clean, without a ridge or excess material, which indicates that this operation was performed on the clay in a semi-dry state.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisenone givenThe style evident in the figurines is a product of cultural action, but the materialization of those actions involved a series of activities and technical choices that reflect the potters' knowledge, ability, experience and environment.
“The style evident in the figurines is a product of cultural action, but the materialization of those actions involved a series of activities and technical choices that reflect the potters’ knowledge, ability, experience and environment.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationown dataThe analyzed samples from Inguapí were shaped manually by modelling, for this purpose homogeneous ceramic pastes were made with selected fine temper, kneading and mixing it properly.
“The analyzed samples from Inguapí were shaped manually by modelling, for this purpose homogeneous ceramic pastes were made with selected fine temper, kneading and mixing it properly.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Study design and conductown dataThe maximum error calculated for XRF analysis was 5%.
“The maximum error calculated was 5%.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Study design and conductown dataSelected samples were similar in representation (all anthropomorphic figurines or sherds) and chronology (all belonged to the second phase, 350 BC-AD 350).
“Second, that selected samples had similarities in terms of representation, chronology, ecosystem and context: regarding representation, all are anthropomorphic figurines or sherds; chronologically, they all belonged to the second phase (350 BC–AD 350)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationown dataThe color differences reveal a thermal gradient, the use of an oxidizing atmosphere, and an incomplete oxidation process of organic matter and iron.
“These color differences reveal a thermal gradient, the use of an oxidizing atmosphere, and an incomplete oxidation process of organic matter and iron.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationown dataThe differences were detected in each and every one of the manufacturing stages, thus representing two different manufacturing pathways or chaînes opératoires within the broader Tumaco ceramic figurine tradition.
“The differences were detected in each and every one of the manufacturing stages, as summarized in Fig 14, thus representing two different manufacturing pathways or chaînes opératoires within the broader Tumaco ceramic figurine tradition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningSamples IN04 and IN05 did not exceed 800°C.
“From this we derive that our samples did not exceed 800°C.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationIconography cannot be considered arbitrary, but rather the product of culturally determined requirements; as such it was an active means of communication, used to transmit ideological messages to a large number of people across extensive geographic areas.
“Iconography cannot be considered arbitrary, but rather the product of a culturally determined requirements; as such they were an active means of a communication, used to transmit ideological messages to a large number of people across extensive geographic areas [19, 36].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [19] Á Ramírez, 2006, El concepto de estilo en Arqueología: Análisis estilístico de figurinas antropomorfas Tumaco-La Tolita, un estudio de caso. Museo Arqueológico Casa del Marqués de San Jorge., Inversa
- cites [36] E DeMarrais, 1996, Ideology, Materialization, and Power Strategies, Current Anthropology source
It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationown dataThe consistent differences in the manufacturing process of these ceramic figurines during the most technologically complex phase of the Tumaco tradition are indicative of technological choices by the manufacturers, and the development of local ceramic traditions.
“The consistent differences in the manufacturing process of these ceramic figurines during the most technologically complex phase of the Tumaco tradition are indicative of technological choices by the manufacturers, and the development of local ceramic traditions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationown dataPossibly, there were also two strategies types of raw material selection, based on the differences in the percentage of fine material found, and in the preparation of the ceramic paste, as suggested by the presence of clay pellets in only one of the groups.
“Possibly, there were also two strategies types of raw material selection, based on the differences in the percentage of fine material found, and in the preparation of the ceramic paste, as suggested by the presence of clay pellets in only one of the groups.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationThe evidence suggests that the figurines are complex and organized symbolic representations, showing some consistency in their morphological features.
“Despite these limitations, the evidence suggest that the figurines are complex and organized symbolic representations, which show some consistency in their morphological features [9, 21, 22].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [9] MF Ugalde, 2009
- cites [21] K Stothert, 2003
- cites [22] MaF Ugalde, 2019, Las alfareras rebeldes: una mirada desde la arqueología ecuatoriana a las relaciones de género, la opresión femenina y el patriarcado, Antipoda Revista de Antropología y Arqueología source
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Study design and conductreasoningThe selected fragments were materials collected by two research projects, contextualized geographically in the Tumaco tradition, allowing comparison of products, manufacture stages and technological choices.
“First, the selected fragments were materials collected by two research projects, duly contextualized in the geographical of the Tumaco tradition, hence allowing a comparison of products, manufacture stages and thus technological choices.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationIn both ceramic and metal materials, a particular style is recognized as a hallmark of the Tumaco-La Tolita tradition that combined sociocultural, symbolic, political, religious, environmental and economic factors with successful technological processes, and involved technical decisions that are culturally embedded.
“In both materials, whether metal or ceramic, a particular”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
The paper relies on this without support.
Traditional studies of archaeological ceramics in Colombia have been largely based on visual and stylistic analyses.
“Traditional studies of archaeological ceramics in Colombia have been largely based on visual and stylistic analyses.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The technological perspective on archaeological ceramics of the Tumaco tradition under study is non-existent.
“The limited information available on archaeological ceramics in Colombia, particularly from the technological perspective (non-existent for the archaeological tradition under study), limits the analysis and comparison with other technologies, regions and other traditions, despite the fact that ceramics constitute the largest material record present in the archeology of Colombia.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The analyzed fragments are representative of the original ceramic figurines and their manufacturing processes.
“Our results identified clear and consistent differences in the manufacturing processes leading to the same type of representation (ceramic figurines), which indicate distinct technological choices at each of the two sites analysed.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The raw materials used to make the figurines were locally available or procured at or near the sites where the figurines were recovered.
“It is likely that these figurines were produced at workshops at, or near, the sites where they are recovered, adapting to local raw materials, customs and knowledge.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Shared style among the figurines reflects a shared ideology.
“Despite sharing a style that reflects a shared ideology, technological choices reflective of a standardized industry are not observed.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The detected mineral phases and microstructures in the fragments reflect original manufacturing conditions and not post-depositional alteration.
“Overall, it can be concluded that the detected elemental and mineralogical differences indicate the use of two different types of raw material sources for the elaboration of the same representation of ceramic objects.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The two groups of figurines correspond to the two archaeological sites and represent distinct production contexts.
“It is proposed that the two groups of figurines, corresponding to the two archaeological sites, were made with two types of raw material, as indicated by their chemical, mineralogical and microstructural differences.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Iron oxide ranges do not match the XRF results
MajorTable 5 gives Fe2O3 values of 13.6-23.5% for La Cocotera and 8.1-13.7% for Inguapí, not the stated 21-28% and 13-17%. The discrepancy affects the reported magnitude of the difference between sites.
“Iron oxide levels are high in both sites, but especially so at La Cocotera (21–28% Fe2O3, compared to 13–17% at Inguapí)”
“| Fe2O3 | 10.8 | 11.9 | 8.1 | 13.7 | 8.7 | 17.1 | 23.5 | 15.5 | 13.6 |”
Sodium oxide trend is reversed
MinorThe text says La Cocotera has higher Na2O, but Table 5 reports no detected Na2O in any La Cocotera sample and detectable amounts in four Inguapí samples.
“Conversely, La Cocotera samples report higher contents of alkali and alkaline earth metal oxides (Na2O, K2O, MgO and CaO).”
“| Na2O | nd | 0.5 | 0.9 | 1.0 | 1.0 | nd | nd | nd | nd |”
Stated Inguapí fine-inclusion size range excludes tabulated sizes
MinorThe stated 20-140 μm range does not cover the fine-fraction ranges in Table 6 for several Inguapí samples; T01 alone extends to 210 μm.
“In Inguapí (IN) potsherds, the fine inclusions fraction (determined between 20 and 140 microns) represented an average of 90% of the section”
“| T01 | 30 | Unimodal | 20–550 | 20–210 | 84 | 50–70 | 220–550 | 16 | --- |”
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
de Groot, B. G., Badreshany, K., Torres-Martínez, J. F., & Fernández‐Götz, M. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0283343 · Cited by 4
Agriculture précolombienne dans le pacifique colombo-équatorien
Ariza Pareja, M. A. (2026) · doi:10.70675/858d242dz87b5z4412z9b21z64dec129e4db
A reverse engineering analysis of iron finds from the Roman Age in Valle Camonica (Italy)
Mazzù, A., Bodini, I., Pasinetti, S., Bettinsoli, A., & Solano, S. (2025) · Journal of Archaeological Science Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105390
Metadata
- Authors
- Bustamante, N. A., Escobar, J. A., & Martinón-Torres, M.
- Affiliations
- Universidad de Los Andes (CO)
- Venue
- PLOS One
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2021-05-05
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- e0250230
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC8099098
- OpenAlex
- W3158191813
- Cited by
- 3
- References
- 32
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1 · 2023: 2
- FWCI
- 2.35
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Apollo (University of Cambridge) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Apollo
- Apollo (cc-by)
- Funders
- University de los Andes de Colombia
- Institute for Archaeo-Metallurgical Studies
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Cultural Heritage Materials Analysis
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Amazonian Archaeology and Ethnohistory
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Archaeological and Geological Studies
- Keywords
- ceramic figurines, reverse engineering, ceramic production, raw material provenance, firing temperature, ceramic microstructure, pre-Columbian pottery, cultural affiliation
- MeSH terms
- Archaeology, Ceramics, Colombia, Engineering, Humans, History, Ancient
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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