Cited by 735Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration MechanismsImmune Response and InflammationInflammasome and immune disorders

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TLR Signaling Tailors Innate Immune Responses in Human Microglia and Astrocytes

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Jack, Carolyn S, Arbour, Nathalie, Manusow, Joshua, Montgrain, Vivianne, Blain, Manon, McCrea, Ellie, Shapiro, Aaron, Antel, Jack P·2005·The Journal of Immunology

DOI 10.4049/jimmunol.175.7.4320

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Abstract

The specific signals mediating the activation of microglia and astrocytes as a prelude to, or consequence of, CNS inflammation continue to be defined. We investigated TLRs as novel receptors mediating innate immune responses in human glial cells. We find that microglia express mRNA for TLRs 1-9, whereas astrocytes express robust TLR3, low-level TLR 1, 4, 5, and 9, and rare-to-undetectable TLR 2, 6, 7, 8, and 10 mRNA (quantitative real-time PCR). We focused on TLRs 3 and 4, which can signal through both the MyD88-dependent and -independent pathways, and on the MyD88-restricted TLR2. By flow cytometry, we established that microglia strongly express cell surface TLR2; TLR3 is expressed at higher levels intracellularly. Astrocytes express both cell surface and intracellular TLR3. All three TLRs trigger microglial activation upon ligation. TLR3 signaling induces the strongest proinflammatory polarizing response, characterized by secretion of high levels of IL-12, TNF-alpha, IL-6, CXCL-10, and IL-10, and the expression of IFN-beta. CXCL-10 and IL-10 secretion following TLR4 ligation are comparable to that of TLR3; however, other responses were lower or absent. TLR2-mediated responses are dominated by IL-6 and IL-10 secretion. Astrocytes respond to TLR3 ligation, producing IL-6, CXCL-10, and IFN-beta, implicating these cells as contributors to proinflammatory responses. Initial TLR-mediated glial activation also regulates consequent TLR expression; while TLR2 and TLR3 are subject to positive feedback, TLR4 is down-regulated in microglia. Astrocytes up-regulate all three TLRs following TLR3 ligation. Our data indicate that activation of innate immune responses in the CNS is not homogeneous but rather tailored according to cell type and environmental signal.

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“Human astrocytes were found to express TLR3, both at the cell surface and in the intracellular compartment (Jack et al., 2005).”
Background
Role of alarmins in poststroke inflammation and neuronal repair
Sakai, S., & Shichita, T. (2022) · Seminars in Immunopathology · doi:10.1007/s00281-022-00961-5 · Cited by 39
“Astrocytes have been reported to express TLR1-9 [99, 100].”
Background
Rapid Regulation of Depression-Associated Genes in a New Mouse Model Mimicking Interferon-α-Related Depression in Hepatitis C Virus Infection
Hoyo-Becerra, C., Liu, Z., Yao, J., Kaltwasser, B., Gerken, G., Hermann, D. M., & Schlaak, J. (2014) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-014-8861-z · Cited by 38
“In the brain, toll-like receptor-3 (TLR3), which is expressed on human and murine microglia, astrocytes, and neuronal growth cones [17–20], represents a sensor for HCV that is activated by viral double-strand RNA.”
Background
Toll-Like Receptors in Ischaemia and Its Potential Role in the Pathophysiology of Muscle Damage in Critical Limb Ischaemia
Patel, H., Shaw, S., Shiwen, X., Abraham, D., Baker, D., & Tsui, J. C. S. (2012) · Cardiology Research and Practice · doi:10.1155/2012/121237 · Cited by 39
“The expression of TLRs in human astrocytes, however, is more restricted with only TLR 3 mRNA detected at intermediate levels; mRNA for TLRs 1, 2, 4, 5, and 9 were detectable but were low, and TLRs 6, 7, 8, and 10 mRNA expression was found to be rare to undetectable [33].”
Background
Possible Involvement of TLRs and Hemichannels in Stress-Induced CNS Dysfunction via Mastocytes, and Glia Activation
Aguirre, A., Maturana, C. J., Harcha, P. A., & Sáez, J. C. (2013) · Mediators of Inflammation · doi:10.1155/2013/893521 · Cited by 39
“In addition, poly (I:C) activation induces CXCL-10 production [92].”
Background
Changes in Neuronal Excitability by Activated Microglia: Differential Na+ Current Upregulation in Pyramid-Shaped and Bipolar Neurons by TNF-α and IL-18
Klapal, L., Igelhorst, B. A., & Dietzel, I. D. (2016) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2016.00044 · Cited by 37
“The LPS stimulus on microglia is mediated by Toll-like receptors 1–9 (TLR), especially TLR2 (13).”
Background
Unique Contribution of Haptoglobin and Haptoglobin Genotype in Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage
Blackburn, S., Kumar, P. T., McBride, D. W., Zeineddine, H. A., Leclerc, J. L., Choi, H. A., Dash, P. K., Grotta, J. C., Aronowski, J. A., Cardenas, J. C., et al. (2018) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2018.00592 · Cited by 39
“TLR4 (and other family members such as TLR2) can be activated by a number of ligands including heme and other components released by SAH (Lee and Lee, 2002; Jack et al., 2005).”
Molecular Mechanism Involved in the Pathogenesis of Early-Onset Epileptic Encephalopathy
Vitaliti, G., Pavone, P., Marino, S., Saporito, M. A. N., Corsello, G., & Falsaperla, R. (2019) · Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnmol.2019.00118 · Cited by 36
“As a result, one of the NMDA receptor subunits is phosphorylated leading to calcium influx into neurons and increasing cellular excitability (Kigerl et al., 2007).”
BackgroundInfluential
Microglia in Neurodegenerative Events—An Initiator or a Significant Other?
Harry, G. J. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22115818 · Cited by 37
“In human microglia isolated from autopsy material, expression of TLR2 and TLR3 mRNA and protein has been detected with only mRNA levels for TLR4 and not protein [72].”
Background
Viral-toxin interactions and Parkinson’s disease: poly(I:C) priming enhanced the neurodegenerative effects of paraquat
Bobyn, J., Mangano, E. N., Gandhi, A., Nelson, E., Moloney, K., Clarke, M., & Hayley, S. P. (2012) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/1742-2094-9-86 · Cited by 37
“These data also indicate that the duration of the augmented microglial response induced by pre-treatment with a TLR3 agonist (poly(I:C)) pre-treatment followed by paraquat administration exceeded what we previously with TLR4 stimulation (using LPS) performed before the pesticide [12].”
Influential
Toll-like receptor-3 mediates HIV-1 transactivation via NFκB and JNK pathways and histone acetylation, but prolonged activation suppresses Tat and HIV-1 replication
Bhargavan, B., Woollard, S. M., & Kanmogne, G. D. (2015) · Cellular Signalling · doi:10.1016/j.cellsig.2015.11.005 · Cited by 38
“However, the localization of TLRs vary amongst cell types; in many cells TLR3 is located intracellularly on endosomes, but in human astrocytes TLR3 is expressed both intracellularly and on the cell surface [5].”
Alterations of Fc gamma receptor I and Toll‐like receptor 4 mediate the antiinflammatory actions of microglia and astrocytes after adrenaline‐induced blood–brain barrier opening in rats
Li, Y., Qin, X., Kuang, F., Wu, R. X., Duan, X., Ju, G., & Wang, B. (2008) · Journal of Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1002/jnr.21810 · Cited by 36
“TLR4 serves as a specific receptor for lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and ligation of TLR4 can activate microglia and astrocytes to produce proinflammatory cytokines, proteases, eicosanoids, and reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (Jack et al., 2005; Krasowska-Zoladek et al., 2007; Konat et al., 2008).”
Background
Inhibition of cathepsin X reduces the strength of microglial-mediated neuroinflammation
Pišlar, A. H., Nedeljković, B. B., Zidar, N., & Kos, J. (2016) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2016.11.019 · Cited by 36
“MAPKs play important roles in modulating the expression of the pro-inflammatory response in LPS-stimulated microglia (Kim et al., 2004; Jack et al., 2005).”
Background
Live imaging of the innate immune response in neonates reveals differential TLR2 dependent activation patterns in sterile inflammation and infection
Lalancette–Hébert, M., Faustino, J. V., Thammisetty, S. S., Chip, S., Vexler, Z. S., & Križ, J. (2017) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2017.05.020 · Cited by 36
“…that it is becoming increasingly clear that innate immune system activation can modulate postnatal brain development (Bsibsi et al., 2002; Jack et al., 2005; Yuan et al., 2010) and that timely modulation of innate immunity is instrumental in the early brain homeostasis and brain…”
Interferon‐β regulates the production of IL‐10 by toll‐like receptor‐activated microglia
Lobo‐Silva, D., Carriche, G. M., Castro, A. G., Roque, S., & Saraiva, M. (2017) · Glia · doi:10.1002/glia.23172 · Cited by 35
“The production of IL-10 by TLR-activated microglia is well documented (Butchi, Du, & Peterson, 2010; Jack et al., 2005; Ledeboer et al., 2002; Mizuno, Sawada, Marunouchi, & Suzumura, 1994; Olson & Miller, 2004).”
MicroRNA-210 regulates the metabolic and inflammatory status of primary human astrocytes
Kieran, N. W., Suresh, R., Dorion, M., MacDonald, A., Blain, M., Wen, D., Fuh, S.-C., Ryan, F., Diaz, R. J., Stratton, J. A., et al. (2022) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-021-02373-y · Cited by 37
“RNA extraction and RT‐qPCR for in vitro samples RNA extraction and reverse transcription of in vitro samples were performed as described above, with the modification that random hexaprimers were used instead of specific primers during the reverse transcription [20].”
BackgroundMethod
Efficient roles of miR-146a in cellular and molecular mechanisms of neuroinflammatory disorders: An effectual review in neuroimmunology
Aslani, M., Mortazavi‐Jahromi, S. S., & Mirshafiey, A. (2021) · Immunology Letters · doi:10.1016/j.imlet.2021.07.004 · Cited by 36
Expression and cell distribution of myeloid differentiation primary response protein 88 in the cerebral cortex following experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage in rats: A pilot study
Sun, Q., Dai, Y., Zhang, X., Hu, Y.-C., Zhang, D.-D., Li, W., Zhang, X., Zhu, J., Zhou, M., & Hang, C. (2013) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2013.05.010 · Cited by 36
Blood–Brain Barrier Promotes Differentiation of Human Fetal Neural Precursor Cells
Chintawar, S., Cayrol, R., Antel, J. P., Pandolfo, M., & Prat, A. (2009) · Stem Cells · doi:10.1002/stem.25 · Cited by 36
Th1 Polarization of CD4+ T Cells by Toll-Like Receptor 3-Activated Human Microglia
Jack, C. S., Arbour, N., Blain, M., Meier, U., Prat, A., & Antel, J. P. (2007) · Journal of Neuropathology & Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1097/nen.0b013e3181492a7 · Cited by 36
“Recent findings have highlighted a role for TLRs in the activation of autoreactive T cells (30, 31) and the ability for TLRs to trigger the switch from autoreactivity to autoimmunity (32, 33).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Hepatitis C Virus NS3 Mediated Microglial Inflammation via TLR2/TLR6 MyD88/NF-κB Pathway and Toll Like Receptor Ligand Treatment Furnished Immune Tolerance
Rajalakshmy, A. R., Malathi, J., & Madhavan, H. N. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0125419 · Cited by 38
“Microglia express functionally active TLR receptors, TLR1 to TLR9 [18].”
Background
Review of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases helps further define pathology of the novel paradigm for Alzheimer’s with heavy metals as primary disease cause
Cavaleri, F. (2015) · Medical Hypotheses · doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2015.10.009 · Cited by 36
The role of Toll-like receptors in multiple sclerosis and possible targeting for therapeutic purposes
Gooshe, M., Abdolghaffari, A. H., Gambuzza, M. E., & Rezaei, N. (2014) · Reviews in the Neurosciences · doi:10.1515/revneuro-2014-0026 · Cited by 36
Genetic variation of innate immune response genes in invasive pneumococcal and meningococcal disease applied to the pathogenesis of meningitis
Sanders, M. S., van Well, G. T. J., Ouburg, S., Morré, S. A., & van Furth, A. M. (2011) · Genes and Immunity · doi:10.1038/gene.2011.20 · Cited by 35
“TLRs are a major group of PRRs and are also expressed by cells in the CNS, especially on microglia and astrocytes, endogenous cells in the CNS and key players in the immune response in this compartment [79].”
Background
Interleukin-1 receptor associated kinases-1/4 inhibition protects against acute hypoxia/ischemia-induced neuronal injury in vivo and in vitro
Yang, Y.-F., Chen, Z., Hu, S.-L., Hu, J., Li, B., Li, J.-T., Wei, L., Qian, Z.-M., Lin, J.-K., Feng, H., et al. (2011) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.08.059 · Cited by 34
Mindin is a critical mediator of ischemic brain injury in an experimental stroke model
Wang, L., Lu, Y., Zhang, X., Zhang, Y., Jiang, D., Dong, X., Deng, S., Li, Y., Guan, Y., Zhu, L., et al. (2013) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2013.01.022 · Cited by 34
Electroacupuncture modulated the inflammatory reaction in MCAO rats via inhibiting the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway in microglia.
Han, B., Lü, Y., Zhao, H., Wang, Y., Li, L., & Wang, T. (2015) · PubMed Central · Cited by 34
Dental pulp-derived stem cells can counterbalance peripheral nerve injury-induced oxidative stress and supraspinal neuro-inflammation in rat brain
Ullah, I., Choe, Y., Khan, M., Bharti, D., Shivakumar, S. B., Lee, H., Son, Y., Shin, Y., Lee, S., Park, B.-W., et al. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-34151-x · Cited by 33
Immunomodulatory role of the extracellular matrix protein tenascin-C in neuroinflammation
Wiemann, S., Reinhard, J., & Faissner, A. (2019) · Biochemical Society Transactions · doi:10.1042/bst20190081 · Cited by 34
Loss of the Extracellular Matrix Molecule Tenascin-C Leads to Absence of Reactive Gliosis and Promotes Anti-inflammatory Cytokine Expression in an Autoimmune Glaucoma Mouse Model
Wiemann, S., Reinhard, J., Reinehr, S., Cibir, Z., Joachim, S. C., & Faissner, A. (2020) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2020.566279 · Cited by 33
“Astrocytes as well as microglia express the toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and its expression is maintained by the extracellular environment (112, 113).”
Background
Calmodulin kinase II-dependent transactivation of PDGF receptors mediates astrocytic MMP-9 expression and cell motility induced by lipoteichoic acid
Wang, H.-H., Hsieh, H., & Yang, C. (2010) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/1742-2094-7-84 · Cited by 35
“In astrocytes of the CNS, TLR signaling has been shown to be involved in brain inflammatory changes [13,14], accompanied by up-regulation of several genes with pro-inflammatory and pro-apoptotic capabilities [11,15,16].”
Background
Tissue kallikrein protects against ischemic stroke by suppressing TLR4/NF-κB and activating Nrf2 signaling pathway in rats
Yang, J., Su, J., Wan, F., Yang, N., Jiang, H., Fang, M., Xiao, H., Wang, J., & Tang, J. (2017) · Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine · doi:10.3892/etm.2017.4614 · Cited by 35
“Within the brain, TLR4 is mainly located on glial cells, including microglia, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes (14).”
Background
Toll-like receptor 9polymorphisms are associated with severity variables in a cohort of meningococcal meningitis survivors
Sanders, M. S., van Well, G. T. J., Ouburg, S., Morré, S. A., & van Furth, A. M. (2012) · BMC Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1186/1471-2334-12-112 · Cited by 33
“TLR9 is present in phagocytosing microglia and antigen presenting astrocytes inside the CNS, cells responsible for adequate immune responses in this compartment [11].”
Background
Effect of CD14/TLR4 antagonist on GnRH/LH secretion in ewe during central inflammation induced by intracerebroventricular administration of LPS
Haziak, K., Herman, A. P., Wojtulewicz, K., Pawlina, B., Paczesna, K., Bochenek, J., & Tomaszewska-Zaremba, D. (2018) · Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology/Journal of animal science and biotechnology · doi:10.1186/s40104-018-0267-8 · Cited by 33
Toll‐like receptor‐4 knockout mice are more resistant to optic nerve crush damage than wild‐type mice
Morzaev, D., Nicholson, J. D., Caspi, T., Weiss, S., Hochhauser, E., & Goldenberg‐Cohen, N. (2015) · Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology · doi:10.1111/ceo.12521 · Cited by 33
Paraquat-Induced Retinal Degeneration Is Exaggerated in CX3CR1-Deficient Mice and Is Associated with Increased Retinal Inflammation
Chen, M., Luo, C., Peñalva, R. G., & Xu, H. (2013) · Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science · doi:10.1167/iovs.12-10888 · Cited by 33
Addiction: A dysregulation of satiety and inflammatory processes
Harricharan, R., Abboussi, O., & Daniels, W. M. U. (2017) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/bs.pbr.2017.07.012 · Cited by 35
“TLRs predominantly use an MyD88-dependent pathway, which elicits downstream neuroinflammatory signaling cascades, culminating in the activation of transcription factors and consequently producing inflammatory cytokines and chemokines (Jack et al., 2005; Lehnardt, 2010).”
Background
TLR-4-Dependent and -Independent Mechanisms of Fetal Brain Injury in the Setting of Preterm Birth
Breen, K. E., Brown, A. G., Burd, I. D., Chai, J., Friedman, A., & Elovitz, M. A. (2012) · Reproductive Sciences · doi:10.1177/1933719112438439 · Cited by 32
“Our results also confirm other findings that demonstrate the robust presence of TLR-4 on microglia and astrocytes alone.(76) In previous studies, stimulation of quiescent microglia with LPS elicited a heightened immune response.”
Result
Predominant role of microglia in brain iron retention in Sanfilippo syndrome, a pediatric neurodegenerative disease
Puy, V., Darwiche, W., Trudel, S., Gomila, C., Lony, C., Puy, L., Lefèbvre, T., Vitry, S., Boullier, A., Karim, Z., et al. (2018) · Glia · doi:10.1002/glia.23335 · Cited by 32
“In fact, TLR4 expression in the brain is mainly restricted to glial cells (Jack et al., 2005), including microglia and astrocytes.”
Background
Lipopolysaccharide and hypoxia/ischemia induced IL-2 expression by microglia in neonatal brain
Girard, S., Larouche, A., Kadhim, H. J., Rola‐Pleszczynski, M., Gobeil, F., & Sébire, G. (2008) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/wnr.0b013e3283036e88 · Cited by 32
“Some arguments suggest that microglia might also be a source of IL-2, especially in response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or H/I: (i) expression of a LPS receptor, toll-like receptor 4, on microglial cell [5], (ii) intracerebral detection of IL-2 transcripts [6–8], (iii) similarities between microglial cells and dendri…”
Background
A novel anti-neuroinflammatory pyridylimidazole compound KR-31360
Ock, J., Kim, S., Yi, K. Y., Kim, N.-J., Han, H. S., Cho, J., & Suk, K. (2009) · Biochemical Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.bcp.2009.09.026 · Cited by 32
“It is known that microglia express TLRs 1–9 [8] and some of these receptors are related to microglial activation and neurotoxicity [1].”
Background
Biochemical, Histopathological and Morphological Profiling of a Rat Model of Early Immune Stimulation: Relation to Psychopathology
Kubesova, A., Tejkalová, H., Syslová, K., Kačer, P., Vondroušová, J., Tylš, F., Fujáková, M., Páleníček, T., & Horáček, J. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0115439 · Cited by 31
Chronic ethanol exposure induces neuroinflammation in H4 cells through TLR3 / NF-κB pathway and anxiety-like behavior in male C57BL/6 mice
Wang, X., Yu, H. Q., Wang, C., Liu, Y., You, J., Wang, P., Xu, G., Shen, H., Yao, H., Lan, X., et al. (2020) · Toxicology · doi:10.1016/j.tox.2020.152625 · Cited by 31
Reduced photoreceptor death and improved retinal function during retinal degeneration in mice lacking innate immunity adaptor protein MyD88
Syeda, S., Patel, A. K., Lee, T., & Hackam, A. S. (2015) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2015.02.027 · Cited by 31
Comparison of anti‐inflammatory potential of four different dibenzocyclooctadiene lignans in microglia; action via activation of PKA and Nrf‐2 signaling and inhibition of MAPK/STAT/NF‐κB pathways
Park, S. Y., Bae, Y., Ko, M. J., Lee, S. J., & Choi, Y. W. (2013) · Molecular Nutrition & Food Research · doi:10.1002/mnfr.201300445 · Cited by 31
SARS-CoV-2 envelope protein triggers depression-like behaviors and dysosmia via TLR2-mediated neuroinflammation in mice
Su, W., Ju, J., Gu, M., Wang, X., Liu, S., Yu, J., & Mu, D.-L. (2023) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-023-02786-x · Cited by 33
“CNS Central nervous system E protein SARS-CoV-2 envelope protein SPT Sucrose preference test FST Forced swimming test TST Tail suspension test OM Olfactory measurement LAA L-α-Aminoadipate PAMPs Pathogen-associated molecular patterns TLR2 Toll-like receptor 2 TLRs Toll-like receptors Supplementary Information The onli…”
BackgroundInfluential

Authors: Jack, C. S., Arbour, N., Manusow, J., Montgrain, V., Blain, M., McCrea, E., Shapiro, A., & Antel, J. P.
Affiliations: Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital (CA)
ORCID: Jack, Carolyn S
Arbour, Nathalie
Shapiro, Aaron
Antel, Jack P
Venue: The Journal of Immunology
Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published: 2005-10-01
Volume: 175
Issue: 7
Pages: 4320-4330
ISSN: 0022-1767 (ISSN-L)
1550-6606
DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.175.7.4320
OpenAlex: W2165413779
Cited by: 734
References: 46
Citations by year: 2026: 17 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 25 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 36 · 2017: 39 · 2016: 38 · 2015: 40 · 2014: 33 · 2013: 59 · 2012: 44
FWCI: 20.39
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: academic.oup.com/pages/standard-publication-reuse-rights (vor)
Locations: The Journal of Immunology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immune Response and Inflammation
Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Inflammasome and immune disorders
Keywords: Toll-like receptors, microglia, astrocytes, glial activation, TLR3, TLR4, TLR2, MyD88 signaling, neuroinflammation, inflammatory cytokines, CXCL10, IL-10, interferon-beta, innate immunity
MeSH terms: Adult, Antigens, Differentiation, Astrocytes, Fetus, Humans, Immunity, Innate, Receptors, Immunologic, Signal Transduction, Interleukin-10, Microglia, Interleukin-12, Adaptor Proteins, Signal Transducing, Myeloid Differentiation Factor 88

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TLR Signaling Tailors Innate Immune Responses in Human Microglia and Astrocytes

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