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Cited by 3Archaeology and ancient environmental studiesAmazonian Archaeology and EthnohistorySoil and Environmental Studies

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 16 of the 16 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 37 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.

HUMAN OCCUPATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT DURING THE HOLOCENE IN THE RIVER CAUCA VALLEY, COLOMBIA: THE EVIDENCE FROM PALEOBOTANY AND FROM SOIL STUDIES

Open access
Duncan, Neil, Cardale Schrimpjf, Marianne, Groot, Ana Maria, Botero, Pedro, Betancourt, Alejandra, Berrio, Juan Carlos·2013·Diálogo andino
DOI 10.4067/s0719-26812013000100010
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Abstract

schrimpff b , ana maria groot c , pedro botero d , alejandra betancourt e , Juan carlos berrio fThis paper summarises the results of on-going research on the valley floor by a multidisciplinary team of archaeologists and specialists in soils, pollen and phytoliths.The research project is designed to chart the history of human occupation of this complex and frequently flooded area during the Holocene and the interaction between this environment and the human population.In the mountains surrounding much of the upper and central Cauca valley there is a gap in our knowledge of human occupation of a thousand years and more with the most recent dates for preceramic sites in the third millennium B.C.; furthermore these later sites appear to be far less numerous than those known from earlier in the Holocene.This "archaeological silence" comes to an end about 700 B.C., by which time the area was inhabited by established farmers with sophisticated pottery.The period of silence is precisely when we would expect to find evidence for early Formative activity in the area, including an intensification of horticulture.Project results, so far, include evidence for local climatic fluctuations with wetter and drier periods, tentative evidence (burning) for human disturbance of the environment from very early in the Holocene (late IXth millennium B.C.) and firm paleobotanical evidence from one or probably two sites for cultivation (maize and arrowroot) associated with burning or other forms of disturbance of the vegetation within the period of "archaeological silence".Although no artefacts from this period have been found so far, a considerable number of sites were located from the late Formative period (Ilama and its daughter culture, Yotoco), testifying to a much more intensive occupation of the valley floor and its floodlands at this time than had been documented previously.

Overview

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This paper summarizes ongoing multidisciplinary research on Holocene human occupation and environmental change in the upper Cauca valley floor, using sediment cores, pollen, phytoliths, and soil studies. It reports local wet/dry fluctuations, early possible human burning, and paleobotanical evidence for maize and arrowroot cultivation during the region’s “archaeological silence.”

Key findings

  • The project documents local climatic fluctuations with wetter and drier periods; in the Torre de la CVC core, three very wet periods (490–410 cm, 380–330 cm, 250–230 cm) alternate with drier periods, and two very dry periods were detected at 20 cm and 210–220 cm.
  • Tentative evidence (burning) suggests human disturbance from very early in the Holocene (late IXth millennium B.C.), and firm paleobotanical evidence from one or probably two sites indicates cultivation (maize and arrowroot) associated with burning or other vegetation disturbance within the period of “archaeological silence.”
  • The “archaeological silence”—a gap of a thousand years and more, with most recent preceramic dates in the third millennium B.C.—ends about 700 B.C., by which time the area had established farmers with sophisticated pottery; no artefacts from the silence period have been found so far, but many late Formative sites (Ilama and Yotoco) were located, indicating much more intensive occupation of the valley floor and floodlands than previously documented.
  • Phytoliths from Barca de Yotoco include maize diagnostic “ruffle-top” rondel forms and a cucurbita phytolith; Cienega de Vidal samples contain cultivated maize and arrowroot in the lower sample (330–360 cm b/s; #4050) and unusually high burned phytoliths, with burning some time before 2480–2290 Cal. B.C.

Methods

  • Multidisciplinary team of archaeologists and specialists in soils, pollen, and phytoliths; project initiated in autumn 2008 to chart Holocene human occupation and human–environment interaction in the upper Cauca valley floor.
  • Sediment coring was used because traditional survey is nearly impossible in this dynamic floodplain: Eijkelkamp auger cores for preliminary soil horizons, then mechanical auger cores; four pollen cores from the Laguna de Sonso lake bed, a fifth with poor preservation, and two further cores near the river Cauca (1050 and 900 cm).
  • Analyses included lithology/soil studies, fossil pollen, phytoliths, and radiocarbon dating; fieldwork also used a physiographic landscape map, surface collections, canoe exploration of river banks, and local information.

Limitations

  • The paper states that no artefacts from the “archaeological silence” period have been found so far; some radiocarbon dates are problematic/misfits, including the uppermost Barca de Yotoco date (Beta 318016, Cal. 7700–7700; 7680–7580 B.C.) and another (Beta 318014, Cal. 17830–17770 B.C.), and additional dates are needed.
  • It states that the early sixth-millennium B.C. maize phytolith evidence needs further confirmation, preferably from closed contexts; the Sonso I maize pollen has no date; and in Sonso I, human impact makes it difficult to distinguish large-scale climate change from local/anthropogenic factors.
  • Evident from the text: results are preliminary/on-going, research concentrated on the Laguna de Sonso area rather than the whole valley, and several interpretations are explicitly tentative.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.4067/s0719-26812013000100010

Cites

16 of 16 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Verification

Claims the paper makes

0 of 37 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Project results so far include evidence for local climatic fluctuations with wetter and drier periods.

    “Project results, so far, include evidence for local climatic fluctuations with wetter and drier periods”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    There is tentative evidence (burning) for human disturbance of the environment from very early in the Holocene (late IXth millennium B.C.).

    “tentative evidence (burning) for human disturbance of the environment from very early in the Holocene (late IXth millennium B.C.)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingreasoning

    The other two radiocarbon dates (Beta 318015, Cal.5610-5590 B.C., 334-340 cm and Beta 318013, Cal.6230-6060, 742-750 cm) are not far out of line with dates from other sites.

    “The other two dates (Beta 318015, Cal.5610-5590 B.C., 334-340 cm and Beta 318013, Cal.6230-6060, 742-750 cm) are not far out of line with dates from other sites.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In the Sonso II core, between 200 and 80 cm there was a predominance of Poaceae and Convolvulaceae reflecting a greater expanse of open water.

    “Two contrasting situations were detected, the first between 200 and 80 cm with a predominance of Poaceae (floating grass meadows) and Convolvulaceae reflecting a greater expanse of open water”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    At the Villalobín site, soil studies indicate that the earliest horizon sampled was formed under the waters of a lake.

    “At the first site (Villalobín) soil studies indicate that the earliest horizon sampled was formed under the waters of a lake.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one. 49
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 15

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Cultivated plants, maize and arrowroot, are only evident in the lower sample (330-360 cm b/s; #4050) and these phytoliths were not burned.

    “Cultivated plants, maize and arrowroot, are only evident in the lower sample (330-360 cm b/s; #4050) and these phytoliths were not burned.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Betancourt's analysis detected high proportions of aquatic and swamp vegetation and a small quantity of pollen from species from the Sub-Andean forest in the woodland sediments.

    “Betancourt's analysis detected high proportions of aquatic and swamp vegetation and a small quantity of pollen from species from the Sub-Andean forest.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    In the Torre de la CVC core, taxa representative of moist, tropical forest are varied and their numbers increase during the periods of greater humidity.

    “In this core in general, taxa representative of moist, tropical forest (Bosque Subandino) is varied and represented by mimosa, Arecaceae, Moraceae, Ficus, alchornea, acalipha, protium, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Hedyosmum, Weinmannia, phyllantus, alnus, miconia, cecropia, Apocynaceae and podocarpus; their numbers increase during the periods of greater humidity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingcitation

    The date Beta 318015, with maize phytoliths in the sixth millennium B.C., is in agreement with the sixth millennium date for pollen of this cereal at Hacienda El Dorado and with a similar date for the Middle Cauca site of El Jasmín.

    “The first of these, with maize phytoliths in the sixth millennium B.C., although very early for this cereal, is in agreement with the sixth millennium date already mentioned for pollen of this cereal at the Hacienda El Dorado and there is a similar date for the Middle Cauca site of El Jasmín (Aceituno 2002: 104).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Aceituno 2002: 104

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingcitation

    The Sonso II core is 2 m deep with a date of Cal.1960-1750 B.C.

    “This core is 2 m. deep with a date of Cal.1960-1750 B.C. (Beta 279733).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Beta 279733

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Three very wet periods with a preponderance of aquatic plants such as Poaceae, Ludwigia, Typha and Spirogyra, between 490-410 cm, 380-330 cm and 250-230 cm, alternate with four somewhat drier periods between 410-380 cm, 280-250 cm, 130-20 cm and from 20 cm to the surface.

    “Three very wet periods with a preponderance of aquatic plants such as Poaceae (paspalum or water grass), Ludwigia, Typha and Spirogyra, between 490-410 cm, 380-330 cm and 250 -230 cm, alternate with four somewhat drier periods between 410-380 cm, 280-250 cm, 130-20 cm and from 20 cm to the surface.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    In the third sample, grasses are abundant and arboreal and forest understory types are slightly less, but include palms and nodular spheres from Marantaceae and/or Bombacaceae.

    “Grasses are abundant and arboreal and forest understory types are slightly less, but include palms and nodular spheres from Marantaceae and/or Bombacaceae.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    In the third sample (330-360 B; #4050), burned phytoliths are well represented, but outnumbered by unburned diagnostic phytoliths.

    “In this third sample, burned phytoliths are well represented, but outnumbered by unburned diagnostic phytoliths.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Although no artefacts from this period have been found so far, a considerable number of sites were located from the late Formative period (Ilama and Yotoco), testifying to a much more intensive occupation of the valley floor and its floodlands at this time than had been documented previously.

    “Although no artefacts from this period have been found so far, a considerable number of sites were located from the late Formative period (Ilama and its daughter culture, Yotoco), testifying to a much more intensive occupation of the valley floor and its floodlands at this time than had been documented previously.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Two very dry periods were detected, one at a depth of 20 cm with a second period at between 210 and 220 cm, represented by a total absence of aquatic vegetation.

    “Two very dry periods were detected, one at a depth of 20 cm with a second period at between 210 and 220 cm, represented by a total absence of aquatic vegetation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Open habitat phytolith indicators are relatively abundant as are the arboreal and forest understory indicators.

    “Open habitat phytolith indicators are relatively abundant as are the arboreal and forest understory indicators.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    For the second part of the history of the lake at Sonso II, the area of open water had shrunk dramatically and been replaced by marshland with reedbeds of Cyperaceae.

    “For the second part of the history of the lake at this point, the area of open water had shrunk dramatically and been replaced by marshland with reedbeds of Cyperaceae.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The total depth of the Sonso I core is 655 cm but pollen analysis started at 550 cm when swamp replaced woodland that grew in the area for a period of about a thousand years.

    “The total depth of this core is 655 cm but pollen analysis started at 550 cm.when swamp replaced woodland that grew in the area for a period of about a thousand years.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    In the lowest sample (330-360 cm b/s), among the non-burned taxa, open habitat indicators are well represented, but burned phytoliths from non-Poaceae types are much more abundant than burned Poaceae types.

    “In this lowest sample (330-360 cm b/s), it is interesting that among the non-burned taxa, open habitat indicators are well represented, however in the same sample, burned phytoliths from non-Poaceae types are much more abundant than burned Poaceae types.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    During the dry periods an extensive area was covered by marsh vegetation with a predominance of Cyperaceae; woodland in the area surrounding the lake became sparse.

    “During the dry periods an extensive area was covered by marsh vegetation with a predominance of Cyperaceae; woodland in the area surrounding the lake became sparse.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The lake at Villalobín gradually dried out and a swamp formed (950-900 cm) with sediments similar in texture but darker greyish blue due to higher organic material from increased vegetation.

    “The lake gradually dried out and a swamp formed (950 -900 cm) with sediments similar in texture but in colour a darker greyish blue as a result of a higher content of organic material due to an increase in the vegetation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    There is abundant evidence for human activities at the Ciénega de Vidal during the Late Period (Sonso), and phytoliths from a small excavation provide further support for the presence of early human activities.

    “There is abundant evidence for human activities here during the Late Period (Sonso) and the results of the study of phytoliths from a small excavation provide further support for the presence of early human activities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Both the lithology and the pollen from the local vegetation (predominantly Cyperaceae) indicate alternating dry and wet periods.

    “Once again, both the lithology and the pollen from the local vegetation (predominantly Cyperaceae) indicate alternating dry and wet periods.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    In the Ciénega de Vidal samples, burned Poaceae phytoliths were easily recognizable, but other phytoliths from probable eudicot plants are represented as burned spheres, blocky and elongate forms, sclerids, and one burned silicified hair cell base from Boraginaceae.

    “In the Cienega de Vidal samples, burned Poaceae phytoliths were easily recognizable, but other phytoliths from probable eudicot plants are represented as burned spheres, blocky and elongate forms, sclerids, and one burned silicified hair cell base from Boraginaceae.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Environmentally the area appears to have been extremely dynamic, and preliminary interpretations of the evidence suggest that there was a very wet period at the beginning of the Holocene, followed by a prolonged drier period with fluctuations.

    “Environmentally the area appears to have been extremely dynamic and preliminary interpretations of the evidence suggest that there was a very wet period at the beginning of the Holocene, followed by a prolonged drier period with fluctuations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingcitation

    Bulliform phytoliths are relatively well represented throughout the Barca de Yotoco sequence, and also suggest phytolith influx from exposed, probably dry open habitats.

    “Bulliform phytoliths, which are produced in the leaves of grasses in higher number in xeric or dry environments (Bremond et. Al 2005), are relatively well represented throughout the sequence, and also suggest phytolith influx from exposed, probably dry open habitats.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bremond et. Al 2005

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    These activities are in evidence again in the next highest stratum (267-295 cm b/s) where non-Poaceae types are better represented than burned Poaceae, although the deposition of non-burned phytoliths was very low.

    “These activities are in evidence again in the next highest stratum (267-295 cm b/s) where non-Poaceae types are better represented than burned Poaceae, although the deposition of non-burned phytoliths was very low.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The date is for a point at 1031 cm below the current surface, in soils of a type of woodland growing in conditions that fluctuated between marsh and lake.

    “The date is for a point at 1031 cm below the current surface, in soils of a type of woodland growing in conditions that fluctuated between marsh and lake.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Ruffle-top rondel forms diagnostic to maize were identified near the top of the sequence and below, and co-occur with a phytolith diagnostic of cucurbita.

    ““Ruffle-top” rondel forms diagnostic to maize were identified near the top of the sequence and below, and co-occur with a phytolith diagnostic of cucurbita.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Ruffle-top rondel phytolith forms are diagnostic of maize.

  • It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisenone given

    The archaeological silence in the upper and central Cauca valley comes to an end about 700 B.C., by which time at least part of the area was inhabited by established farmers with sophisticated pottery.

    “This “archaeological silence” comes to an end about 700 B.C., by which time the area was inhabited by established farmers with sophisticated pottery.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisenone given

    In the mountains surrounding much of the upper and central Cauca valley there is a gap in knowledge of human occupation of a thousand years and more, with the most recent dates for preceramic sites in the third millennium B.C. and later sites far less numerous than those known from earlier in the Holocene.

    “In the mountains surrounding much of the upper and central Cauca valley there is a gap in our knowledge of human occupation of a thousand years and more with the most recent dates for preceramic sites in the third millennium B.C.; furthermore these later sites appear to be far less numerous than those known from earlier in the Holocene.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Burned or carbonized phytoliths have unique characteristics and may undergo morphological changes associated with extreme heat.

    “Burned or carbonized phytoliths have unique characteristics and may undergo morphological changes associated with extreme heat (Parr 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Parr 2006 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    These people, like their neighbours in the mountains, would undoubtedly have suffered periodic eruptions and ash fall from the volcanoes of the Central Cordillera.

    “Although evidence is hard to recover in the valley these people, like their neighbours in the mountains, would undoubtedly have suffered periodic eruptions and ash fall from the volcanoes of the Central Cordillera.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    A core from the hacienda Lusitania revealed maize pollen and evidence of probable human disturbance of the natural vegetation by the fourth or early fifth millennium B.C.

    “A core from the hacienda Lusitania revealed maize pollen and evidence of probable human disturbance of the natural vegetation by the fourth or early fifth millennium B.C. (Monsalve, 1985: 40-44)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Monsalve, 1985: 40-44

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Premisereasoning

    In such a dynamic environment, finding human settlements and sites through traditional survey methods is nearly impossible.

    “In such a dynamic environment, finding human settlements and sites through traditional survey methods is nearly impossible”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Altogether, the phytolith data suggests a mixed-habitat landscape in the immediate vicinity of the Barca de Yotoco, with pockets of cleared areas that were perhaps for the purpose of agriculture.

    “Altogether, the phytolith data suggests a mixed-habitat landscape in the immediate vicinity of the Barca de Yotoco, with pockets of cleared areas that were perhaps for the purpose of agriculture.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Due to the considerable human impact in evidence in the Sonso I core (from about 4 m depth), it is difficult to be sure to what extent the fluctuations are due to climate change on a large scale and which are due to local conditions and anthropogenic factors.

    “However, Lockett and Berrío (2012) note that, due to the considerable human impact in evidence in this core (from about 4 m. in depth), it is difficult to be sure to what extent these fluctuations are due to climate change on a large scale and which are due to local conditions and anthropogenic factors.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lockett and Berrío 2012

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These cultivated taxa likely correspond to cleared areas for agriculture and the burned phytoliths in this sample most likely represent land-clearing practices associated with agriculture some time before 2480-2290 Cal.B.C.

    “These cultivated taxa likely correspond to cleared areas for agriculture and the burned phytoliths in this sample most likely represent land-clearing practices associated with agriculture some time before 2480-2290 Cal.B.C.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationreasoning

    For the valley-dwellers there was the additional hazard of catastrophes caused by torrential flows of ash and other materials brought down by the rivers rising in these mountains, such as the flow that appears to have killed the forest at Sonso I.

    “For the valley-dwellers there was the additional hazard of catastrophes caused by torrential flows of ash and other materials brought down by the rivers rising in these mountains, such as the flow that appears to have killed the forest at Sonso I.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The meandering course of the river Cauca produced numerous ox-bow lakes which would have been prime settlement sites, while extensive flooding constituted an ever-present hazard.

    “The meandering course of the river Cauca produced numerous ox-bow lakes which would have been prime settlement sites while, on the down side, extensive flooding constituted an ever-present hazard.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    For part of its upper course, the river Cauca runs through a broad, alluvial valley slightly over 200 km long with an average width of between 15 and 30 km.

    “For part of its upper course, the river Cauca runs through a broad, alluvial valley.slightly over 200 km long (from the towns of Timba in the south to near La Virginia, in the Departamento of Risaralda in the north) with an average width of between 15 and 30 km.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Sandoval y Ramírez 2005: 21

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Mapa en relieve de la Republica de Colombia, IGAC 1980

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    With the passing of the generations they would also have had to adapt to periodic changes in the climate and vegetation with oscillations between very wet and very dry conditions, changes that would have had profound effects on the range of crops that could be grown successfully.

    “With the passing of the generations they would also have had to adapt to periodic changes in the climate and vegetation with oscillations between very wet and very dry conditions, changes that would have had profound effects on the range of crops that could be grown successfully.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The upper section of the swamp is dated to c. 3000 B.C., so the catastrophic event should have taken place at about this time or not long before.

    “The upper section of the swamp is dated to c. 3000 B.C. (Beta 2360036, Cal.3090-2380 B.C.) so the catastrophic event should have taken place at about this time or not long before.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Beta 2360036

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisenone given

    The alluvial soils and volcanic ash make the Cauca valley one of the most fertile areas in Colombia.

    “The alluvial soils and volcanic ash make it one of the most fertile areas in Colombia”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisenone given

    Burned phytoliths are often unchanged morphologically and can be identified to group or type.

    “Burned phytoliths are often unchanged morphologically and can be identified to group or type”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    The dry period started at a point in time still to be defined but probably near the beginning of the 2nd millennium B.C. and may have ended shortly before the onset of the Ilama period.

    “This dry period started at a point in time still to be defined but probably near the beginning of the 2 nd millennium B.C. and may have ended shortly before the onset of the Ilama period.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisereasoning

    Extensive areas of well-preserved ancient soil horizons are an essential pre-requisite for the project's approach, and these are provided by the floodplain of the upper river Cauca.

    “For this approach extensive areas of well-preserved ancient soil horizons are an essential pre-requisite, something which is almost impossible to find in the mountains where a long history of natural processes of erosion and of human activities has reduced the ancient horizons to small and discontinuous patches.These conditions are, however, provided by the floodplain of the upper river Cauca.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The rubble may simply be the result of a very dry period when there was little vegetation on the slopes to protect them, or the vegetation may have been destroyed by the fires, leaving the slopes bare and open to erosion.

    “While this may simply be the result of a very dry period when there was little vegetation on the slopes to protect them, equally the vegetation may have been destroyed by the fires, leaving the slopes bare and open to erosion with every tropical downpour.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Forest margin grasses in the Bambusoideae subfamily are well represented in the third sample, which, together with a dominance of grass types, suggests a more open habitat with minor forest and understory contribution.

    “Forest margin grasses in the Bambusoideae subfamily are well represented, which, together with a dominance of grass types in this sample suggests a more open habitat with minor forest and understory contribution.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    The Cauca valley has two wet seasons (April-May and October-December) separated by two dry seasons; the climax vegetation that once covered the area was semi-evergreen and deciduous woodland.

    “The Cauca valley has two wet seasons (April-May and October-December) separated by two dry seasons; the climax vegetation that once covered the area was semi-evergreen and deciduous woodland (“Bosque Seco Tropical” -see Diaz Merlano 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Diaz Merlano 2006

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    The appearance of vegetation characteristic of disturbed areas such as ambrosia, Chenopodiaceae and selaginella may indicate an increase in the rate of sedimentation at the edges of the lake and human impact on the environment.

    “The appearance of vegetation characteristic of disturbed areas such as ambrosia, Chenopodiaceae and selaginella may indicate an increase in the rate of sedimentation at the edges of the lake and human impact on the environment.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Bands of hunters would have been attracted to the valley in much earlier times, possibly in the late Pleistocene, when their influence on the environment would still have been negligible and very difficult to detect.

    “In view of its exceptional riches in terms of fish and game, it seems not unlikely that bands of hunters would have been attracted to the valley in much earlier times, possibly in the late Pleistocene when their influence on the environment would still have been negligible and very difficult to detect.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisenone given

    There is evidence for ash falls and for catastrophic quantities of volcanic material washed into the area of study by tributaries of the river Cauca.

    “Additional problems were provided by the volcanoes, active in the Central Cordillera, and there is evidence for ash falls and for catastrophic quantities of this material washed into the area of study by tributaries of the river Cauca.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    If the landscape was being managed with fire, the high proportion of non-burned open habitat indicators compared to burned non-Poaceae types suggests that open habitats may have been expanding by burning additional forest taxa or that secondary forest was being cleared from an already open habitat with abundant grasses.

    “If the landscape was being managed with fire, the high proportion of non-burned open habitat indicators compared to burned non-Poaceae types suggests that open habitats may have been expanding by burning additional forest taxa or that secondary forest was being cleared from an already open habitat with abundant grasses.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationreasoning

    In pre-Columbian times the richness of the fauna can hardly have failed to have been a constant attraction for human populations.

    “in pre-Columbian times the richness of the fauna can hardly have failed to have been a constant attraction for human populations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premiseown data

    While there is no direct evidence for cultivated species, phytoliths of an unidentified squash or gourd were present as were those from a species of Marantaceae related to the arrowroot.

    “While there is no direct evidence for cultivated species, phytoliths of an unidentified squash or gourd were present as were those from a species of Marantaceae related to the arrowroot”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    It is possible that the intensive burning above a stratum containing cultivated plants represents an expansion or management of open habitats by burning or perhaps a prolonged episode of clearing following a period of fallow.

    “it is possible that the intensive burning above a stratum containing cultivated plants represents an expansion or management of open habitats by burning or perhaps a prolonged episode of clearing following a period of fallow.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    In later years, at least, houses would have been built on the slightly higher ground provided by the natural dykes as well as on the colluvial-alluvial fans of the piedmont.

    “In later years, at least, the houses would have been built on the slightly higher ground provided by the natural dykes as well as on the colluvialalluvial fans of the piedmont.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    The high proportion of sulphur in the analysis of the soil from the swamp horizon is interpreted by Botero as indicating an avalanche of volcanic debris that swept down the valley of the river Guadalajara from the Central Cordillera, burying the wood, damming the natural drainage pattern and forming a swamp.

    “The high proportion of sulphur in the analysis of the soil from the swamp horizon is interpreted by Botero as indicating an avalanche of volcanic debris that would have swept down the valley of the river Guadalajara from the Central Cordillera, burying the wood, damming the natural drainage pattern and forming a swamp.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    In this study, a high proportion of bulliform phytoliths might suggest dry periods or perhaps more open sun-exposed habitats where plants would be subject to more transpiration.

    “In this study, a high proportion of bulliform phytoliths might suggest dry periods or perhaps more open sun-exposed habitats where plants would be subject to more transpiration.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    These groups would have had to learn to live with extensive annual floods when much of their time would have been spent in a canoe.

    “They would have had to learn to live with extensive annual floods when much of their time would have been spent in a canoe.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
56 of 56

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Ruffle-top rondel phytolith forms are diagnostic of maize.

    ““Ruffle-top” rondel forms diagnostic to maize were identified near the top of the sequence and below”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Early Formative activity, including an intensification of horticulture, should be found in the period of archaeological silence.

    “The period of silence is precisely when we would expect to find evidence for early Formative activity in the region, including an intensification of horticulture.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The late Formative horizon (Yotoco and possibly Ilama) cannot be older than early in the first millennium B.C.

    “which cannot be older than early in the first millennium B.C.”
3 of 3

Citations

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Herrera, L.; M. Cardale De Schrimpff; W. Bray and P. Botero 1992 Nuevas fechas de radiocarbono para el Precerámico en la cordillera occidental de Colombia. En: O. Ortiz- Troncoso y Thomas van der Hammen (ed.). Archaeology and Environment in Latin America, pp. 145-163. Proceedings of a symposium held at the 46th International Congress of Americanists, Amsterdam, July 4-8, 1988. Instituut voor pre-en protohistorische Archeologie Albert Eggers van Giffen (IPP), Universiteit van Amsterdam.
  2. Piperno, D.R. 1985 Phytolith Records from Prehistoric Agriculture Fields in the Calima Region, Colombia. Pro Calima 4: 37-40. 2006 Phytoliths: A Comprehensive Guide for Archaeologists and Paleoecologists. AltaMira Press, Oxford.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Metadata

Authors
Duncan, N., Cardale Schrimpjf, M., Groot, A. M., Botero, P., Betancourt, A., & Berrio, J. C.
Affiliations
  • University of Missouri (US)
  • Universidad Nacional de Colombia (CO)
ORCID
Duncan, Neil
Venue
Diálogo andino
Publisher
Universidad de Tarapacá
Published
2013-06
Issue
41
Pages
159-170
ISSN
  • 0716-2278 (ISSN-L)
  • 0719-2681
DOI
10.4067/s0719-26812013000100010
OpenAlex
W2071580596
Cited by
3
References
16
Citations by year
2026: 1 · 2019: 2
FWCI
0.00
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by-nc
Locations
  • Diálogo andino (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
  • Americanae (AECID Library) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • Redalyc (Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México) (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • University of Missouri
  • University of Leicester
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Archeology › Archaeology and ancient environmental studies
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Amazonian Archaeology and Ethnohistory
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Soil Science › Soil and Environmental Studies
Keywords
Cauca Valley, paleobotany, phytoliths, soil research, Formative period, maize cultivation, arrowroot, paleoclimate, floodplain settlement

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).

A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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