Multilevel Modeling of Categorical Outcomes Using IBM SPSS
Abstract
This is the first workbook that introduces the multilevel approach to modeling with categorical outcomes using IBM SPSS Version 20. Readers learn how to develop, estimate, and interpret multilevel models with categorical outcomes. The authors walk readers through data management, diagnostic tools, model conceptualization, and model specification issues related to single-level and multilevel models with categorical outcomes. Screen shots clearly demonstrate techniques and navigation of the program. Modeling syntax is provided in the appendix. Examples of various types of categorical outcomes demonstrate how to set up each model and interpret the output. Extended examples illustrate the logic of model development, interpretation of output, the context of the research questions, and the steps around which the analyses are structured. Readers can replicate examples in each chapter by using the corresponding data and syntax files available at www.psypress.com/9781848729568. The book opens with a review of multilevel with categorical outcomes, followed by a chapter on IBM SPSS data management techniques to facilitate working with multilevel and longitudinal data sets. Chapters 3 and 4 detail the basics of the single-level and multilevel generalized linear model for various types of categorical outcomes. These chapters review underlying concepts to assist with trouble-shooting common programming and modeling problems. Next population-average and unit-specific longitudinal models for investigating individual or organizational developmental processes are developed. Chapter 6 focuses on single- and multilevel models using multinomial and ordinal data followed by a chapter on models for count data. The book concludes with additional trouble shooting techniques and tips for expanding on the modeling techniques introduced. Ideal as a supplement for graduate level courses and/or professional workshops on multilevel, longitudinal, latent variable modeling, multivariate statistics, and/or advanced quantitative techniques taught in psychology, business, education, health, and sociology, this practical workbook also appeals to researchers in these fields. An excellent follow up to the authors’ highly successful Multilevel and Longitudinal Modeling with IBM SPSS and Introduction to Multilevel Modeling Techniques, 2nd Edition, this book can also be used with any multilevel and/or longitudinal book or as a stand-alone text introducing multilevel modeling with categorical outcomes.
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GEEs allow the inclusion of patients for whom measures are missing for certain time periods.
“GEEs also allow the inclusion of patients for whom measures are missing for certain time periods (e.g. patients attached in August 2014 who did not have a measure for T0 + 2 years).”
Robust (Huber-White sandwich) estimators were used given departure from normality and large sample size.
“Robust (Huber-White sandwich) estimators were used given departure from normality and large sample size [69, 70].”
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“Useful references include Heck, Thomas, and Tabata (2013) for IBM SPSS; Bender and Benner (2000) for SAS and S-Plus; and Long, Long, and Freese (2006) for Stata.”
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“Findings from sensitivity analyses using general estimation equation models (GEEs) for categorical outcomes [64] were similar.”
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“Following the procedure sketched by Heck, Thomas, and Tabata (2012), we first estimated the unconditional (null) model for both sexting and mobile porn use, in which only intercepts (in our case: one fixed effect for the intercept and three random effects expressing its variability across the…”
MethodEXPOSURE FREQUENCY IN L2 READING
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Intimately connected: The importance of partner responsiveness for experiencing sexual desire.
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“Heck et al. (2010, 2012) refer to the ICC as the proportion of total variance in the outcome due to within-unit differences at higher levels.”
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MethodEstrangement Between Mothers and Adult Children: The Role of Norms and Values
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“To reach this aim, a logistic regression and chi-square analysis with layer variables using the Fisher exact test was performed (24).”
MethodContested Spaces: Intimate Segregation and Environmental Gentrification on Chicago's 606 Trail
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“In each regression model, we used the kernel model to calculate the log likelihood function and the effect size (Heck et al. 2013).”
MethodClassroom Assessment and Educational Measurement
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“A logit link was used to accommodate this repeatedly measured binary outcome variable [52,53].”
MethodFear, foraging and olfaction: how mesopredators avoid costly interactions with apex predators
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“The counts were commonly occurring (food pieces were often left behind resulting in higher GUDs) and, as such, a negative binomial regression (negative binomial distribution with a log link) generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) was used to examine the influence of independent variables upon GUDs (Heck et al. 2012).”
MethodContinuity and Change in Mothers' Favoritism Toward Offspring in Adulthood
Suitor, J. J., Gilligan, M., & Pillemer, K. A. (2013) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/jomf.12067 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“We ran an intercept-only model, which provided the variance components to calculate the interclass correlation coefficients (Heck et al., 2012).”
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When Societal Norms and Social Identity Collide: The Race Talk Dilemma for Racial Minority Children
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Ordinal Regression Models in Psychology: A TutorialPreprint
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“Since the outcomes are dichotomous (curvy or pointy), we used Binary logistic regression that couples a binomial probability distribution with the logit link function (which is the canonical link function for the binomial distribution) (Heck et al., 2012).”
MethodEffects of teaching concept mapping using practice, feedback, and relational framing
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Characteristics of Students Identified With Dyslexia Within the Context of State Legislation
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Support, reluctance, and production in child abuse investigative interviews.
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Perceived fairness of the division of household labor: A comparative study in 29 countries
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“As suggested by Heck, Thomas, and Tabata (2012) for logistic regression models, for variation at Level 1 we employed the 3.26 value for unexplained variation.”
MethodInfluentialGrund, A., & Carstens, C.-A. (2018) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-018-9721-3 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Democratic Participation in Voluntary Associations: A Multilevel Analysis of Sports Clubs in Europe
Ibsen, B., Elmose-Østerlund, K., Feiler, S., Breuer, C., Seippel, Ø. N., van der Roest, J.-W., & Scheerder, J. (2019) · VOLUNTAS International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations · doi:10.1007/s11266-018-00088-y · Cited by 46 · see citing works
A probabilistic model to evaluate the resilience of unattended machinery plants in autonomous ships
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The privatization of neighborhood governance and the production of urban space
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Lee, S. C., DelPozo‐Baños, M., Lloyd, K. R., Jones, I. R., Walters, J., Owen, M. J., O’Donovan, M. C., & John, A. M. (2020) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2020.03.044 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“…with unstructured within-subject correlation Please cite this article as: S.C. Lee, M. DelPozo-Banos, K. Lloyd, et al., Are population-based linkage st..., Schizophrenia Research, https://doi.org/10. structure, using robust variance for parameter estimation (Agresti, 2007; Heck et al., 2012).”
MethodBlasbalg, U., Hershkowitz, I., Lamb, M. E., Karni‐Visel, Y., & Ahern, E. C. (2018) · Law and Human Behavior · doi:10.1037/lhb0000303 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Role of Perceived Maternal Favoritism and Disfavoritism in Adult Children’s Psychological Well-Being
Suitor, J. J., Gilligan, M., Peng, S., Jung, J. H., & Pillemer, K. A. (2015) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbv089 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“To determine whether to use random-effects or fixed-effects models, we ran an intercept-only model, which provided the variance components to calculate the intraclass correlation coefficients (Heck, Thomas, & Tabata, 2013).”
MethodBrief Report: Risk-Aversion and Rationality in Autism Spectrum Disorders
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My Pride and Joy? Predicting Favoritism and Disfavoritism in Mother–Adult Child Relations
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“This type of model compares the probability of being in one selected outcome category to the probability of being in the reference category (Heck et al., 2013).”
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“Mechanisms of handling missing data differed for GLMMs compared to LMMs in the used software IBM SPSS 22 (due to different levels of measurement of the outcomes and modeling approaches [43, 44]).”
MethodInfluentialProbst, T., Lambert, M. J., Loew, T. H., Dahlbender, R. W., & Tritt, K. (2015) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2014.981682 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Dual Credit/Dual Enrollment and Data Driven Policy Implementation
Lichtenberger, E. J., Witt, A. M., Blankenberger, B., & Franklin, D. (2014) · Community College Journal of Research and Practice · doi:10.1080/10668926.2013.790305 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“The propensity score weighting process is described in Rosenbaum and Rubin (1983) and Hirano and Imbens (2001). Propensity score weighting generally involves the inversion of the propensity score as a way to better estimate the average treatment effect (Lunceford & Davidian, 2004).”
BackgroundGlądalski, M., Bańbura, M., Kaliński, A., et al. (2016) · Avian Biology Research · doi:10.3184/175815516x14447556559088 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Site and year were treated as random factors in these models (the Wald Z-test was used to test both random factors, Heck et al., 2012).”
MethodInfluentialJoshanloo, M., & Jovanović, V. (2018) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105318820104 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“For example, an odds ratio of .30 would suggest that a one-point increase in the regressor is associated with a 0.70 percent decrease in the likelihood of reporting health problems (Heck et al., 2013).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialKarni‐Visel, Y., Hershkowitz, I., Lamb, M. E., & Blasbalg, U. (2019) · Child Maltreatment · doi:10.1177/1077559519831382 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Koletić, G., Kohut, T., & Štulhofer, A. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0218962 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Self-control, future orientation, smoking, and the impact of Dutch tobacco control measures
Daly, M., Delaney, L. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (2015) · Addictive Behaviors Reports · doi:10.1016/j.abrep.2015.07.002 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Fuller, E. J., Hollingworth, L., & An, B. P. (2016) · Educational Administration Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0013161x16656039 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Camilleri, A. R., Cam, M., & Hoffmann, R. F. (2019) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.2122 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Rusu, M. S. (2020) · Cities · doi:10.1016/j.cities.2020.102773 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
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“This ensured findings were not artificially inflated by individual students’ performance [23, 24].”
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Cutumisu, M., Blair, K. P., Chin, D. B., & Schwartz, D. L. (2016) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-016-0137-5 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“The Level 1 variance for a Binomial distribution is estimated as π2/3 (i.e., approximately 3.29; Heck, Thomas, and Tabata 2013, p. 179).”
InfluentialChildren with autism spectrum disorder show pronoun reversals in interpretation.
Overweg, J., Hartman, C. A., & Hendriks, P. (2018) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000338 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Therefore, the data of the direct speech condition were analyzed using GLMM analyses in IBM SPSS Statistics 23, using a logit link to accommodate the repeatedly measured binary outcome variable Accuracy (cf. Heck, Thomas, & Tabata, 2012; Jaeger, 2008).”
MethodImam, T., Gibson, J. S., Gupta, S. D., Hoque, M. A., Fournié, G., & Henning, J. (2021) · Preventive Veterinary Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2021.105500 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
van Maastricht, L., Krahmer, E., & Swerts, M. G. J. (2016) · Speech Communication · doi:10.1016/j.specom.2016.07.008 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Familiality of Psychotic Disorders: A Polynosologic Study in Multiplex Families
Peralta, V., Goldberg, X., Ribeiro, M., Sánchez-Torres, A. M., Fañanás, L., & Cuesta, M. J. (2015) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbv192 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Blair, A. C., Anderson, K., Bateman, C., Haapala, I., Biggs, S., & Kurrle, S. (2018) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610218000911 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“In order to determine if multilevel modeling was required to take account of the correlation between outcomes for individuals in each hospital, ICCs were calculated for each (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2007; Heck et al., 2012).”
InfluentialIndividual, household and area predictors of anaemia among children aged 6–59 months in Nigeria
Obasohan, P. E., Walters, S. J., Jacques, R., & Khatab, K. (2022) · Public Health in Practice · doi:10.1016/j.puhip.2022.100229 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Giesen, J. M., & Cavenaugh, B. S. (2013) · Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness · doi:10.1177/0145482x1310700607 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Using the procedure from Heck et al. (2012), the intra-agency (intraclass) correlation indicated that 8.00% of the variance in the odds of competitive employment lies between agencies.”
MethodInfluentialAkalu, L. S., & Wang, H. (2023) · Journal of Agriculture and Food Research · doi:10.1016/j.jafr.2023.100563 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Hoekman, R., Breedveld, K., & Kraaykamp, G. (2017) · European Journal for Sport and Society · doi:10.1080/16138171.2017.1421510 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“It is essential to employ multilevel analyses (Heck et al., 2012) to adequately uncover how elements of sport policy at the municipal level impact individual sport participation.”
BackgroundInfluentialRollan, À., Hernández‐Matías, A., & Real, J. L. P. (2018) · Agriculture Ecosystems & Environment · doi:10.1016/j.agee.2018.09.029 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Verver, S. H., Vervloed, M. P. J., & Steenbergen, B. (2019) · Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities · doi:10.1007/s10882-019-09680-6 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
ADANACIOĞLU, H. (2016) · Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems · doi:10.1017/s1742170516000193 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“In the case of an ordinal outcome with three or more categories, the odds ratio for the logit model represents the odds of the higher category, as comparedwith all lower categories combined (Heck et al., 2013).”
BackgroundSupply-side factors influencing informal payment for healthcare services in Tanzania
Binyaruka, P., Balabanova, D., McKee, M., et al. (2021) · Health Policy and Planning · doi:10.1093/heapol/czab034 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“use random effects but rather use a standard logistic model with clustering (Heck et al., 2013).”
MethodSmithman, M. A., Haggerty, J., Gaboury, I., & Breton, M. (2022) · BMC Primary Care · doi:10.1186/s12875-022-01850-4 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“To take into account the correlation between repeated measures for a given individual in the outcome variables, we used generalized estimating equations (GEEs) which provide population-average regression coefficients [69].”
BackgroundMethodJohnsen, D. B., Lomholt, J. J., Heyne, D. A., Jensen, M. B., Jeppesen, P., Silverman, W. K., & Thastum, M. (2024) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-024-01196-8 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“All models included a random intercept, and the slope was specified as random if improving the model fit (evaluated by a significant change in the -2 log-likelihood (-2LL) fit statistics (Heck et al., 2012).”
MethodGirolamo, N. D., & Reynders, R. M. (2016) · Draw Science · doi:10.7717/peerj.1649 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“PeerJ reviewing PDF | (2015:10:7168:3:0:NEW 9 Jan 2016) 225 Logistic regression and multilevel logistic regression models were developed to provide 226 odds ratio adjusted for confounders (Peng & So, 2002; Heck et al., 2013).”
Thastum, M., Johnsen, D. B., Silverman, W. K., Jeppesen, P., Heyne, D. A., & Lomholt, J. J. (2019) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-018-3124-3 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-Referential Processing Predicts Social Cognitive Ability
Dinulescu, S., Alvi, T., Rosenfield, D., Sunahara, C. S., Lee, J., & Tabak, B. A. (2020) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550620902281 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Therefore, we first reversed the EA Scale to make it positively skewed and then preformed a g regression (GLMM with a log link and a g distribution, which is recommended for positively skewed data; Heck et al., 2012).”
MethodObasohan, P. E., Walters, S. J., Jacques, R., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182111234 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“The rule of thumb could be that when the ICC is less than 5% at the null model, hierarchical modelling may not be necessary [54].”
Kaczkurkin, A. N., Asnaani, A., Alpert, E., & Foa, E. B. (2016) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2016.02.001 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Data analyses were conducted using the generalized linear mixed models routine of the IBM SPSS Statistics program (version 22) using the procedures outlined in Heck, Thomas, and Tabata (2012) and Shek and Ma (2011).”
MethodVocational rehabilitation services and employment for SSDI beneficiaries with visual impairments
Giesen, J. M., & Hierholzer, A. (2016) · Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation · doi:10.3233/jvr-150789 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
The Influence of Nurses' Demographics on Patient Participation in Hospitals: A Cross‐Sectional Study
Malfait, S., Eeckloo, K., & Hecke, A. V. (2017) · Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing · doi:10.1111/wvn.12254 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Student and School-level Predictors of Pharmacy Residency Attainment
Lyons, K. M., Taylor, D. A., Minshew, L. M., et al. (2018) · American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education · doi:10.5688/ajpe6220 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Although this did notmeet established criteria for being collinear, it was determined that the best method was to continue modeling without an interaction effect.(24) Table 2.”
MethodBelchior, A. M., Azevedo, J., Lisi, M., & Abrantes, M. (2017) · Journal of Contemporary European Studies · doi:10.1080/14782804.2017.1413641 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
A quantitative critique of Kerlin’s macro-institutional social enterprise framework
Monroe‐White, T., Kerlin, J. A., & Zook, S. (2015) · Social enterprise journal · doi:10.1108/sej-03-2015-0008 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“country cases), a Satterthwaite[4] approximation was used, along with a robust estimation of the fixed effects, which is useful in smaller sample sizes (Heck et al., 2012).”
MethodEmployment Outcomes of Youth With Disabilities in Vocational Rehabilitation
Alsaman, M. A., & Lee, C.-L. (2016) · Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0034355216632363 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Peng, S., Suitor, J. J., & Gilligan, M. (2016) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbw105 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“To determine whether to use random-effects or fixed-effects models, we ran an intercept-only model, which provided the variance components to calculate the intraclass correlation coefficients (Heck, Thomas, & Tabata, 2013).”
MethodMalfait, S., Eeckloo, K., Biesen, W. V., & Hecke, A. V. (2019) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.13954 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“The difference over time between patients was calculated using a linear mixed model without repeated measures (Heck et al., 2012), as these data could not be paired (i.e. different patients at each time point).”
MethodDaigneault, I., Hébert, M., McDuff, P., Michaud, F., Vézina-Gagnon, P., Henry, A., & Porter-Vignola, É. (2015) · The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality · doi:10.3138/cjhs.2626 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Compliance with a structured bedside handover protocol: An observational, multicentred study
Malfait, S., Eeckloo, K., Biesen, W. V., Deryckere, M., Lust, E., & Hecke, A. V. (2018) · International Journal of Nursing Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2018.04.011 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Jurick, S. M., Crocker, L. D., Merritt, V. C., Hoffman, S. N., Keller, A. V., Eglit, G. M. L., Thomas, K. R., Norman, S. B., Schiehser, D. M., Rodgers, C. S., et al. (2019) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617719000997 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Xia, L., Gao, Q., & Tang, J. (2022) · Journal of Chinese Political Science · doi:10.1007/s11366-021-09767-y · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“We choose the multilevel analysis method because of the multilevel data structure, where households are clustered in counties with different urbanization rates and provinces in different regions [23].”
MethodAnderson, K., & Blair, A. C. (2021) · Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2021.104378 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Examining the state of energy poverty in Rwanda: An inter-indicator analysis
Khundi-Mkomba, F., Saha, A. K., & Wali, U. G. (2021) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08441 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“05, which indicates substantial evidence of clustering (Heck et al., 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialGilligan, M., Suitor, J. J., & Nam, S. (2014) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbu148 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“We ran an intercept-only model, which provided the variance components to calculate the interclass correlation coefficients (ICCs; Heck, Thomas, & Tabata, 2012).”
MethodEuroImpact, Evans, N., Pasman, H. R. W., Payne, S. A., Seymour, J. E., Pleschberger, S., Deschepper, R., & Onwuteaka-Philipsen, B. D. (2012) · BMC Palliative Care · doi:10.1186/1472-684x-11-24 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Adult Children’s Serious Health Conditions and the Flow of Support Between the Generations
Gilligan, M., Suitor, J. J., Rurka, M. M., Con, G., & Pillemer, K. A. (2015) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/gnv075 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“We ran an intercept-only model, which provided the variance components to calculate the intraclass correlation coefficients (Heck, Thomas, & Tabata, 2013).”
MethodKim, H. (2019) · Glossa a journal of general linguistics · doi:10.5334/gjgl.628 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“6 In the present study, we used GENLIN MIXED analysis in SPSS v21 which provides t statistics for fixed effects (logistic regression coefficient) (see Heck et al. 2012).”
MethodWerbart, A., Andersson, H., & Sandell, R. (2014) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2014.883087 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“To test the role of organizational stability for type of therapy attrition, multilevel multinomial regression models were estimated using SPSS v. 21 with robust estimation of standard errors (Heck et al., 2012).”
MethodFruit and vegetable intake among Emirati adolescents: a mixed methods study
WHO Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean, Makansi, N., Allison, P. J., Awad, M., & Bedos, C. P. (2018) · Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal · doi:10.26719/2018.24.7.653 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
- Authors
- Heck, R. H., Thomas, S., & Tabata, L.
- ORCID
- Heck, Ronald H
- Venue
- Routledge eBooks
- Publisher
- Routledge
- Published
- 2013-05-07
- OpenAlex
- W1586960195
- Cited by
- 316
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 29 · 2020: 34 · 2019: 36 · 2018: 34 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 22 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 2 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 5.22
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Routledge eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Applications
- Keywords
- multilevel modeling, categorical outcomes, generalized linear models, longitudinal data, multinomial data, ordinal data, count data, population-averaged models, SPSS, data management, model specification, model interpretation
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