The Taxonomy of Metacognition

“From education [106] to management [90], health-care [36], and even sports [111], many research disciplines have carved out their own approach to metacognition, producing multiple inconsistent terminologies and frameworks (for reviews see [131, 181]).”

“…to current theoretical models of SRL, methodological approaches to studying SRL, and analyses of SRL processes underlying self-regulation during complex learning (Tarricone, 2011; Veenman, 2011; Greene et al., 2015; Järvelä and Bannert, 2019; Winne, 2019; Azevedo, 2020; Lajoie et al., in press).”

“Applied to endurance exercise, metacognitive processes may include planning, self-instruction, self-monitoring, self-evaluation, relaxation, and strategy (e.g. Augustyn & Rosenbaum, 2005; Huber, 1997; Martini & Shore, 2008; Tarricone, 2011).”

“One of the best examples of this distinction is the work of Tarricone (2011) where the most comprehensive conceptual framework of metacognition is provided and clearly distinguishes between metacognitive knowledge and skills.”

“Indeed, research since then has used the term metacognition to understand how persons plan and monitor their behavior as well as evaluate possible responses to the challenges they face (Tarricone, 2011).”

“It is also important to note that although self-regulation and metacognition have distinct origins in psychology, metacognition is considered an essential component of effective self-regulation (Dinsmore et al., 2008; Efklides, 2008; Tarricone, 2011).”

“Metacognitive regulation includes planning, monitoring, and evaluation and could be considered as “self-management” of cognition involving reflective “self-appraisal” which supports awareness and has been labeled executive control [6].”

“Metacognition, similar to personal epistemology, is a complex construct, which has received multiple formulations (e.g., Baker, 1994; Brown, 1987; Efklides, 2008; Flavell, 1979; Tarricone, 2011; Veenman et al., 2006).”

“Overlapping concepts include reflection, attribution, perspective taking, and theory of mind (Miller 2012; Tarricone 2011).”

“Tarricone (2011) had conducted a comprehensive “taxonomy of metacognition” which is primarily focused upon on the wide-scale research in the educational research domain.”

“Declarative metacognitive knowledge can further be subdivided into different knowledge areas, for example, between knowledge of self and others, and knowledge of task and context (Tarricone, 2011).”

“, 2014), and on relevant 10 accounts from the metacognition literature (e.g., Efklides, 2006; Tarricone, 2011).”

“At its highest level, the conceptualization of metacognition is frequently broken into two discernible processes – a monitoring process and a control process (Flavell, 1979) – although many more specific processes within the concept of metacognition can be distinguished (Tarricone, 2011).”

“For our model we have considered the definition proposed by Tarricone (2011) in her Taxonomy of Metacognition because it is the one that best fits the theoretical construct proposed for complex thinking, considering that the same author links her proposal of metacognition with the notion of complex…”

“Regulation of cognition consists of three essential components: planning, monitoring, and evaluating (Schraw, 1998; Tarricone, 2011; Veenman et al., 2006).”

“Tarricone (2011) explained that metacognitive are the information, its processes, monitoring, and its control for obtaining novel learning.”

“Conversely, others propose that reflection promotes metacognition and, accordingly, meta-cognitive capacity is developed by promoting reflection (Gonullu & Artar, 2014; Tarricone, 2011).”

“17–19 Focusing on psychopathology, Wells 20 was among the first to suggest that metacognitive beliefs people have about their cognitions affect how persons respond to distress and psychosocial challenges leading to emotional disorders (ie, anxiety, depression).”

“There are also opportunities for the author to reflect on their knowledge of self-systems including self-efficacy, self-concept, self-esteem and self-appraisal (Tarricone 2011).”

“Reflection is foundational to self-regulated learning, (Zimmerman, 1998a, 1998b, 2002), metacognition (Flavel, 1979; Pintrich, 2002; Tarricone, 2011), and deep learning (Van Meter et al.”

“Goal-setting, planning, and strategy-adjustment during a deliberate problem-solving situation, which equips people for their personal striving, are considered metacognitive regulatory skills (Brown, 1987; Tarricone, 2011) and involve both monitoring and control functions of the brain.”

“Taxonomies that are commonly, but not necessarily, hierarchical in structure have been used in areas such as biology (Simpson, 1961), cognitive science (Tarricone, 2011; Rasmussen et al., 1990), education (Bloom and Krathwohl, 1956; Gagné and Briggs, 1974) and engineering (Plants et al.”

“Other efforts have sought to distinguish different kinds of metacognition from one another on the basis of the goal of their behaviors, for example, whether they involve planning, self-monitoring, and error detection and knowledge about strategies for responding to challenges (Tarricone, 2011).”

“Children’s rote repetition of what they read or just did appears to be generally ineffective in improving performance, whereas stating aloud their metacognitive reflections (e.g., commenting on why they did something) may enhance their performance (Bunce, Flens, & Neiles, 2010; Tarricone, 2011).”

“[14,19,54–57]), which has led to the concept and structure of metacognition becoming fuzzy [57] as different models and meanings increase.”

“As Tarricone (2011) states, metacognitive experiences are conscious cognitive and affective experiences, including “awareness, unexpected awareness, thoughts, intuitions, perceptions, feelings and selfjudgements of oneself as a cognisor during problem-solving and task completion” (p. 130).”

“The elements of metacognitive knowledge and regulation are not hierarchical, rather they interact and reinforce each other to a high degree [3, 9].”

“Since metacognition is fundamental to the general learning process (Tarricone, 2011), it is considered as one of the most potent predictors of successful language learning (Teng et al.”

“Metacognitive beliefs (i.e., a form of metacognitive knowledge) may address a person’s evaluation of their own abilities and selfworth (Tarricone, 2011).”

“However, there is fuzziness in the concept and structure of metacognition [14,24] due to different models and meanings being presented in the literature, and it is not always easy to distinguish between cognition and metacognition [22].”

“This teacher-directed and student-practiced metacognitive activity incorporated self-evaluations of acquisition, comprehension, and reasoning on, for instance, concepts in science (Bensley and Spero 2014; Halpern 1998; Tarricone 2011).”

“Further, the importance of developing intentional and conscious reflection is critical for developing higher-order thinking skills and plays a role in learning (Azevedo et al., 2018; Alzaid & Hsiao, 2018; Izu & Alexander, 2018; Luo & Baaki, 2019; Patel et al., 2019; Tarricone, 2011; Dewey, 1923).”

“Self-regulated learning and metacognition are both generally defined by their component parts (Sperling, Howard, Staley & DuBois, 2004; Tarricone, 2011).”

“Although the metacognitive concept is over 40 years old, researchers keep using different definitions for this construct (Baten et al. 2017; Brown 1987; Gascoine et al. 2017; Perfect and Schwartz 2002; Tarricone 2011).”

“Metacognitive processes, and the ones associated with memory (so called metamemory), mainly concern distinct but interdependent components (see Tarricone, 2011): (a) metacognitive/metamemory knowledge of how cognitive abilities and memory function as well as on tasks, strategies, and the nature of…”

“Additionally, collaborative problem-solving promotes communication involving creative and interpretive meaning-making, analysis, and re fl ective judgment (Tarricone, 2011).”

“…(e.g., Ackerman and Thompson 2017), decision-making (e.g., Evans 2020; Stanovich 2011), social psychology (e.g., Schwarz 2018), educational psychology (Moshman 2015; Preiss 2022; Tarricone 2011), and creativity (Beghetto and Madison 2022; Kaufman and Beghetto 2013; Karwowski et al. 2020).”

“As Tarricone (2011) explains, metacognitive experiences are ignited in problem-solving situations, “[t]hey interact with metacognitive knowledge and evolve from and inform monitoring and control processes and in doing so support self-regulation” (p. 173).”

“This second step involved metacognition, or thinking about thinking (Tarricone, 2011), as the students were asked to think about how to describe their findings in columns A and B in abstract terms.”

“M viewpoint is more able to exercise some volition over their emotions by modifying their cognitions (Tarricone, 2011); since not grasping a C –”

“This form of self-reflection will generate new knowledge and new learning experiences (Tarricone, 2011).”

“time to plan and teach lessons, teachers have the freedom to decide what to and how to teach (11, 83).”

“…between self-regulation and metacognition, although many writers see self-regulation as the ‘superconstruct’ (Schneider 2010, 57), comprising regulation of cognition, motivation and emotion, and metacognition as a ‘key subprocess’ (Tarricone 2011, 168), focused more explicitly on cognition.”

“Importantly, the resulting observational protocol and coding strategy are aligned with widely accepted taxonomic structures of metacognition (Tarricone, 2011), consistent with similar work in the contexts of early education (Whitebread et al.”

“906), metacognition can be conceptualized as including knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition (Tarricone, 2011).”

“It is defined as a tripartite construct that contains an individual’s insight, control and monitoring of their cognitions (Flavell, 1979; Tarricone, 2011), and metacognition is vital for successful self-regulation (Tarricone, 2011).”

“It also facilitates or is facilitated by, other thinking behaviors, including the ability to monitor and control thinking while studying—that is, self-regulated learning (Winne, 2017; Winne & Hadwin, 1998) and critical reflection (Tarricone, 2011)—which is related to transdisciplinarity (Fook et al.”

“For example, Tarricone (2011) provided ‘the most comprehensive conceptual framework of metacognition . . . [which] clearly distinguishes between metacognitive knowledge and skills’ (Azevedo, 2020, p. 92), however, the article’s diagrams and tables do not portray the relationship between them.”

“…and strategies, metacognitive experiences are what the individual goes through during a cognitive endeavor, including cognitive and affective experiences that are online metacognitive knowledge, ideas and beliefs, feelings, goals, and self-judgments (Flavell, 1979; Efklides, 2001; Tarricone, 2011).”

“Since that time, it has been applied to numerous fields, including attachment, psychopathology, human development, and cognitive psychology (Bacon et al, 2011; Dinsmore et al., 2008; Main, 1991; Tarricone, 2011) and taken on a range of meanings, including broader processes in which information is integrated in more or…”

“Previous authors have described multiple definitions of metacognition (e.g., Tarricone 2011).”