CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 16Ancient Egypt and ArchaeologyClassical Antiquity StudiesAncient and Medieval Archaeology Studies

Scaling the State: Egypt in the Third Millennium BC

Open access
Bussmann, Richard·2014·Archaeology International
DOI 10.5334/ai.1708
Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Discussions of the early Egyptian state suffer from a weak consideration of scale. Egyptian archaeologists derive their arguments primarily from evidence of court cemeteries, elite tombs, and monuments of royal display. The material informs the analysis of kingship, early writing, and administration but it remains obscure how the core of the early Pharaonic state was embedded in the territory it claimed to administer. This paper suggests that the relationship between centre and hinterland is key for scaling the Egyptian state of the Old Kingdom (ca. 2,700-2,200 BC). Initially, central administration imagines Egypt using models at variance with provincial practice. The end of the Old Kingdom demarcates not the collapse, but the beginning of a large-scale state characterized by the coalescence of central and local models.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.5334/ai.1708

Cites

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Bussmann has argued for longer-term processes of state development in early Egypt.

    “Bussmann (2014) has argued for longer-term processes of state development in early Egypt.”

    From The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation (2016) · cites this paper as Bussmann 2014

  • Once more, Thebes was established as the capital of the unified kingdom after the Hyksos were expelled from Middle and Lower Egypt.

    “Once more, Thebes was established as the capital of the unified kingdom after the Hyksos were expelled from Middle and Lower Egypt.35”

    From The Kingship and the Moon from the Late 17th to Early 18th Dynasties (2024) · cites this paper as [35]

    The paper’s discussion of the Old Kingdom and the later temple model (section labeled “1335 Downloads”; no page supplied) does not address Thebes becoming capital after the Hyksos’ expulsion. Searches for “Hyksos,” “Thebes,” and the claimed reunification found no passage in our copy supporting that sequence. (LLM, conf=0.76)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Cites

No references could be resolved yet.

Research works printed but not linked: 53

  1. 1 Alexanian,N. (1995). Die Mastaba II/1 in Dahshur-Mitte In: Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Abteilung Kairo. Kunst des Alten Reiches. Zabern: Rhein, pp.1–18.
  2. 4 Barnard,H, Duistermaat,KK(ed s .), . (2012). The History of Peoples of the Eastern Desert. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press.
  3. 5 Bárta,M. (2013). Moreno García,(ed.), Kings, Viziers, and Courtiers: Executive Power in the Third Millennium BC. :153–175. 2013a.
  4. 6 Bárta,M. (2014). Collapse Hidden in Success: Rise & Fall of the Old Kingdom. KMT 25 (1) :18–28.
  5. 9 Bussmann,R. Mylonopoulos,I(ed.), Cult and Kingship in Provincial Egypt: the Early Temple of Satet on Elephantine Island. Archaeology and Ritual, in press.
  6. 10 Butzer,K. (1976). Early Hydraulic Civilization in Egypt: a Study in Cultural Ecology. Chicago; London: University of Chicago Press.
  7. 11 Butzer,K W. (1997). Sociopolitical Discontinuity in the Near East c. 2200 B.C.E.: Scenarios from Palestine and Egypt In: Dalfes,H N, Kukla,G;Gand Weiss,HH(ed s .), Third Millennium BC Climate Change and Old World Collapse. Heidelberg: Springer, pp.245–296, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-60616-8_9 · DOI
  8. 12 Butzer,K W. (2002). Geoarchaeological Implications of Recent Research in the Nile Delta In: van den Brink,E C M, Levy,T ET E(ed s .), Egypt and the Levant: Interrelations from the 4th Through the Early 3rd Millennium. London; New York: Leicester University Press, pp.83–97.
  9. 14 Childe,G. (1945). Directional Changes in Funerary Practices during 50,000 years. Man 45 :13–19, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2793007 · DOI
  10. 16 Claessen,H J M, Skalník,PP(ed s .), . (1978). The Early State. Mouton: The Hague, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9783110813326 · DOI
  11. 17 de Miroschedji,P. (2002). The Socio-political Dynamics of Egyptian-Canaanite Interaction in the Early Bronze Age In: van den Brink,E C M, Levy,T ET E(ed s .), Egypt and the Levant: Interrelations from the 4th through the Early 3rd millennium. London; New York: Leicester University Press, pp.39–57.
  12. 21 Engel,E-M. (2013). Moreno García,(ed.), The Organisation of a Nascent State: Egypt until the Beginning of the 4th Dynasty. :19–40. 2013a.
  13. 23 Feinman,G M, Marcus,JJ(ed s .), . (1998). Archaic States. Santa Fee: School of American Research Press.
  14. 26 Friedman,F D. (1995). The Underground Relief Panels of King Djoser at the Step Pyramid. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 32 :1–42, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/40000828 · DOI
  15. 27 Friedman,R, Fiske,P NP N(ed s .), . (2011). Egypt at Its Origins III: Proceedings of the Third International Conference “Origins of the State. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt”. 27th July-1st August 2008, London Leuven; Paris; Walpole, MA: Peeters and Department Oosterse Studies.
  16. 32 Guyot,F. (2008). The Origins of the “Naqadan Expansion” and the Interregional Exchange Mechanisms between Lower Nubia, Upper and Lower Egypt, the South Levant, and North Syria during the First Half of the 4th millennium BC In: Midant-Reynes,B, Tristant,Y;Yand Rowland,J;J, Hendrickx,SS(ed s .), Egypt at Its Origins 2: Proceedings of the International Conference “Origin of the State. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt”. 5th-8th September 2005, Toulouse (France) Leuven, Paris, Dudley (MA): Peeters and Departement Oosterse Studies, pp.707–740.
  17. 33 Haring,B. (2013). Moreno García,(ed.), The Rising Power of the House of Amun in the New Kingdom. :607–657.
  18. 37 Holdaway,S; Phillipps,R; Wendrich,W; Cappers,R. (2012). Mid-Holocene Occupation of Egypt and Global Climatic Change. Quaternary International 251 :64–76, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2011.04.004 · DOI
  19. 40 Kaplony,P. (1992). Archaische Siegel und Siegelabrollungen aus dem Delta: die Arbeit an den Siegeln von Buto In: van den Brink,E C M(ed.), The Nile Delta in Transition, 4th - 3rd millennium B.C. Proceedings of the Seminar. 21. - 24. October 1990, Cairo Netherlands Institute of Archaeology and Arabic Studies Tel Aviv: :23–30.
  20. 41 Kemp,B J. (1995). How Religious were the Ancient Egyptians?. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 5 (1) :25–54, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0959774300001177 · DOI
  21. 42 Kemp,B J. (2006). Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization. London: Routledge.
  22. 43 Köhler,E C. (2010). Theories of State Formation In: Wendrich,W(ed.), Egyptian Archaeology. Oxford; Malden; Chichester: Blackwell, pp.36–54.
  23. 44 Kóthay,K A. (2013). Moreno García,(ed.), Categorisation, Classification, and Social Reality: Administrative Control and Interaction with the Population. :479–520. 2013a.
  24. 45 Kuper,R; Kröpelin,S. (2006). Climate-Controlled Holocene Occupation in the Sahara: Motor of Africa‘s Evolution. Science, New Series 313 (5788) :803–807, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1130989 · DOI
  25. 48 Lehner,M; Tavares,A. (2010). Walls, Ways and Stratigraphy: Signs of Social Control in an Urban Footprint at Giza In: Bietak,M, Czerny,E;Eand Forstner-Müller,II(ed s .), Cities and Urbanism in Ancient Egypt: Papers from a Workshop in November 2006 at the Austrian Academy of Sciences. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, pp.171–216.
  26. 50 Levy,T E; van den Brink,E C M. (2002). Interaction Models, Egypt and the Levantine Periphery In: van den Brink,E C M, Levy,T ET E(ed s .), Egypt and the Levant: Interrelations from the 4th through the Early 3rd millennium. London; New York: Leicester University Press, pp.1–38.
  27. 51 McFarlane,A. (1992). Holders of Priesthoods In: Kanawati,N(ed.), Akhmim in the Old Kingdom I: Chronology and Administration. Sydney: Australian Centre for Egyptology, pp.199–289.
  28. 52 Midant-Reynes,B. (2000). The Prehistory of Egypt: from the First Egyptians to the First Pharaohs. Oxford: Blackwell.
  29. 55 Moreno García,J C. (2005). Les temples provinciaux et leur rôle dans l’agriculture institutionelle de l’Ancien et du Moyen Empire In: Moreno García,J C(ed.), L’agriculture institutionnelle en Égypte ancienne: état de la question et perspectives interdisciplinaires. Villeneuve-d’Ascq: Université Charles-de-Gaule Lille, 3 pp.93–124.
  30. 56 Moreno García,J C(ed.), . (2013a). Ancient Egyptian Administration. Leiden; Boston: Brill.
  31. 57 Moreno García,J C. (2013b). Moreno García,(ed.), The Territorial Administration of the Kingdom in the 3rd Millennium. :85–152. 2013a.
  32. 58 Müller-Wollermann,R. (1986). Krisenfaktoren im ägyptischen Staat des ausgehenden Alten Reichs. Unpublished thesis (PhD). University of Tübingen.
  33. 59 Münch,H-H. (2013). Die Repräsentation des Hausverbandes des K3-nj-njswt I. (G 2155): ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des sozialen Wissens im Alten Reich In: Neunert,G, Gabler,K;Kand Verbovsek,AA(ed s .), Nekropolen: Grab – Bild – Ritual. Beiträge des zweiten Münchener Arbeitskreises Junge Aegyptologie (MAJA 2) 2. bis 4.12.2011. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, pp.181–196.
  34. 60 Nicoll,K. (2004). Recent Environmental Change and Prehistoric Human Activity in Egypt and Northern Sudan. Quaternary Science Reviews 23 :561–580, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2003.10.004 · DOI
  35. 61 O’Connell,E(ed.), . (2012). Mariners and Traders: Connections between the Red Sea Littoral, Arabia and Beyond. Edited volume of British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan (18) Available at http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/publications/online_journals/bmsaes/issue_18.aspx [Last accessed 19 May 2014].
  36. 62 Papazian,H. (2008). Perspectives on the cult of Phraraoh during the third millennium B.C.: a chronological review In: Vymazalová,H, Bárta,MM(ed s .), Chronology and Archaeology in Ancient Egypt (Third Millennium B.C.). Prague: Charles University, pp.61–80.
  37. 64 Pätznick,J-P. (2005). Die Siegelabrollungen und Rollsiegel der Stadt Elephantine im 3. Jahrtausend v. Chr.: Spurensicherung eines archäologischen Artefaktes. Oxford: Archaeopress.
  38. 70 Raue,D, Seidlmayer,S J;S Jand Speiser,PP(ed s .), . (2013). The First Cataract of the Nile: One Region - Diverse Perspectives. Berlin; Boston: De Gruyter.
  39. 71 Regulski,I. (2008). The Origin of Writing in Relation to the Emergence of the Egyptian State In: Midant-Reynes,B, Tristant,YY(ed s .), Egypt at Its Origins 2: Proceedings of the International Conference “Origin of the State. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt”. 5th-8th September 2005, Toulouse (France) Leuven: Peeters and Departement Oosterse Studies, pp.985–1009.
  40. 72 Regulski,I. (2009). Early Dynastic Seal Impressions from the Settlement Site at Elkab In: Claes,W, de Meulenaere,H;Hand Hendrickx,SS(ed s .), Elkab and Beyond: Studies in Honour of Luc Limme. Leuven; Paris; Walpole (MA): Peeters and Department Oosterse Studies, pp.31–47.
  41. 74 Scott,J C. (1998). Seeing like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed. New Haven: Yale University Press.
  42. 75 Seidlmayer,S J. (1996). Town and State in the Early Old Kingdom: a View from Elephantine In: Spencer,J(ed.), Aspects of Early Egypt. London: British Museum Press, pp.108–127.
  43. 76 Seidlmayer,S J. (2006). Der Beitrag der Gräberfelder zur Siedlungsarchäologie Ägyptens In: Czerny,E, Hein,I;Iand Hunger,H;H, Melman,D;D, Schwab,AA(ed s .), Timelines: Studies in Honour of Manfred Bietak. Leuven: Peeters and Departement Oosterse Studies, 1 pp.309–316.
  44. 78 Sowada,K. (2009). Egypt in the Eastern Mediterranean during the Old Kingdom: an Archaeological Perspective. Fribourg: Academic Press. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
  45. 80 Tavares,A. (2011). Village, Town and Barracks: a Fourth Dynasty Settlement at Heit el-Ghurab, Giza In: Strudwick,N, Strudwick,HH(ed s .), Old Kingdom, New Perspectives: Egyptian Art and Archaeology 2750–2150 BC. Oxford: Oxbow Books, pp.270–277.
  46. 81 Török,L. (2009). Between Two Worlds: the Frontier Region between Ancient Nubia and Egypt 3700 BC - AD 500. Leiden; Boston: Brill, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004171978.i-606 · DOI
  47. 82 Trigger,B G. (2003). Understanding Early Civilizations: a Comparative Study. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511840630 · DOI
  48. 83 Tristant,Y. (2004). L’habitat prédynastique de la vallée du Nil: vivre sur les rives du Nil aux Ve et IVe millénaires. Oxford: Archaeopress.
  49. 85 Wengrow,D. (2006). The Archaeology of Early Egypt: Social Transformations in North-East Africa, 10,000 to 2,650 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  50. 86 Wenke,R. (2009). The Ancient Egyptian State: the Origins of Egyptian Culture (c. 8000–2000). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  51. 88 Willems,H. (2008). La culture nomarcale: dimensions politiques, administratives, sociales et religieuses In: Willems,H(ed.), Les textes des sarcophages et la démocratie: éléments d’une histoire culturelle du Moyen Empire égyptien. Paris: Éditions Cybele, pp.5–66.
  52. 89 Yoffee,N. (2001). The Evolution of Simpli­city (Scott’s “Seeing like a State”). Current Anthropology 42 (5) :767–769, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/323822 · DOI · Paper page
  53. 90 Yoffee,N. (2005). Myths of the Archaic State: evolution of the Earliest States, Cities, and Civilizations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511489662 · DOI · Paper page

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Authors
Bussmann, R.
Affiliations
University College London (GB)
Corresponding author
Bussmann, Richard
ORCID
Bussmann, Richard
Venue
Archaeology International
Publisher
UCL Press
Published
2014-10-23
Volume
17
Issue
1
ISSN
  • 1463-1725 (ISSN-L)
  • 2048-4194
DOI
10.5334/ai.1708
OpenAlex
W1964837758
Cited by
16
References
0
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 2 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 3 · 2016: 3
FWCI
6.73
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Archaeology International (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • heiDOK (Heidelberg University) (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
  • UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
  • University Library Heidelberg
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology › Ancient Egypt and Archaeology
  • Social Sciences › Anthropology › Classical Antiquity Studies
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology › Ancient and Medieval Archaeology Studies
Keywords
Old Kingdom, state formation, scale, centralized management, provincial administration, elite tombs, kingship, 3rd millennium BC

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review