The Evolution of Hybrid Warfare: Implications for Strategy and the Military Profession

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Without a precise definition, hybrid war risks meaning everything and nothing, hindering understanding of contemporary war.

“Without a precise definition, hybrid war risks saying both everything and nothing in a way prone to hindering a better understanding of contemporary war and warfare.8”

• cites [8] 8. Bettina Renz, "Russia and 'Hybrid Warfare'," Contemporary Politics 22, no. 3 (2016): 297. sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Evolved hybrid war has become a synonym for gray zone conflict, with both terms usually referring to Russian action in a way that hinders general analysis.

“The evolved hybrid war has become a synonym for gray zone conflict with both terms typically referring to Russian action in a way that hinders more general analysis.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Kennan's definition captures gray zone conflict better than many contemporary writers do.

“With his definition and despite its age, Kennan succeeds in capturing gray zone conflict better than many who write about the phenomenon today.”

May combine two claims.

Hybrid war became associated with Russia rather than nonstate actors and was viewed as the West's most immediate security threat.

“Hybrid war now became synonymous with Russia rather than nonstate actors and was seen as the most immediate security threat for the West.7”

• cites [7] 7. and Oscar Jonsson and Robert Seely, "Russian Full-Spectrum Conflict: An Appraisal after Ukraine," Journal of Slavic Military Studies 28, no. 1 (2015): 21.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

While the military retained supreme authority in theatres of war, its exact role in political warfare elsewhere was left undefined.

“While the supreme authority of the military continued in theatres of war, the exact role the military was to play in political warfare elsewhere was left undefined.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

If war is mainly understood as concerning use of force, it belongs to the military profession, which seeks autonomy within its professional domain.

“If war is mainly understood to concern use of force, it belongs to the remit of the military profession which, like all professions, seeks autonomy within its professional domain.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Ownership of war is entrenched in bureaucratic, normative, and legal frameworks.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

For Clausewitz, all war and warfare is inherently political.

“For Clausewitz, all war and hence warfare is inherently political.”

May combine two claims.

This evolution indicates a devaluation of the perceived utility of violence in contemporary war and has immediate strategic implications.

“This evolution indicates devaluation of the perceived utility of violence in contemporary war and comes with immediate implications for strategy.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Clausewitz's belief required destroying enough of an enemy's armed forces to make them unable to defend themselves, then conquering the opponent's country to prevent new forces and renewed resistance.

“This belief required destroying enough of an enemy's armed forces to make them unable to defend themselves.After this, an opponent's country had to be conquered to prevent its citizens from raising new forces and offering renewed resistance.42”

• cites [42]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Harold Lasswell defined soldiers as specialists on violence.

“This focus has endured, as illustrated by Harold Lasswell's definition of soldiers as”

• cites [27] 27. Kennan, "Organized Political Warfare," 2, 6.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The Russian occupation of Crimea occurred just as the Western withdrawal from Afghanistan confirmed that counterinsurgency had failed.

“The Russian occupation of Crimea came at the precise moment when the withdrawal of most Western forces from Afghanistan confirmed the counterinsurgency strategy had failed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

From Clausewitz's theory of war, political warfare is an oxymoron.

“From the perspective of Clausewitz's theory of war, political warfare is an oxymoron.33”

• cites [33]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Kennan likely chose the prefix political to de-emphasize violence and move narrow military strategy toward broader grand strategy.

“Considering the way Kennan believed”

May combine two claims.

The timing of Russia's Crimean occupation was opportune for Western militaries because they never had to admit defeat against the Taliban.

“In this way, the timing of the Russian occupation of Crimea was opportune for Western militaries, which never had to admit defeat against the Taliban.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Grand strategy covers all means actors may use for political ends, while military strategy is narrower and focuses on military means and actors.

“While grand strategy encompasses all means actors may employ to achieve desired political ends, military strategy focuses more narrowly on a subordinate level where military means and actors prevail.31”

• cites [31]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

If adherents of hybrid war are believed, much contemporary conflict lies outside the traditional military domain, raising fundamental questions for the military profession.

“If one believes the adherents of hybrid war and similar concepts, much of contemporary conflict lies outside this traditional military domain, raising fundamental questions for the military profession.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Military strategy involves force, which is one means available to broader grand strategy.

“Military strategy, therefore, involves the use of force, which in turn forms one of the means available for broader grand strategy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Defining hybrid war is not only an analytical problem.

“This article argues that the problem of defining hybrid war is not merely an analytical one.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Hybrid war and gray zone conflict suggest that success in contemporary war depends on coordinating and combining military and nonmilitary means.

“To summarize, hybrid war and gray zone conflict suggest that success in contemporary war depends on coordination and combination of military and nonmilitary means.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Like political warfare in theatres of war, hybrid war was still war in a way that allowed the military profession to remain in its traditionally narrow domain.

“Like political warfare in theatres of war, hybrid war was still war in a way that allowed the military profession to remain in its traditionally narrow domain.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Contemporary research has not recognized how hybrid war evolved from Hoffman's precise definition to today's catchall.

“Contemporary research has failed to acknowledge the evolution of hybrid war from Hoffman' s more precise definition to the catchall it has become today.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Many activities attributed to gray zone, hybrid war, and political warfare fall outside the traditional military domain or the use of violence in war.

“Regardless of the label used, many of the activities ascribed to gray zone, hybrid war, and political warfare lie outside the traditional military domain, or use of violence in war.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Political warfare soon became a way to wage the Cold War with less risk of nuclear escalation.

“Political warfare in any case soon became a way to wage the Cold War in a manner less likely to escalate to a nuclear exchange.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Neglecting our own experiences in Afghanistan and equating Russian action with hybrid war have contributed to a poor understanding of Russia and of combining means to achieve political ends.

“Neglecting to analyze our own experiences in places like Afghanistan and equating Russian action and hybrid war have contributed to a poor understanding of Russia and how we can combine various means and ways to achieve our desired political ends.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Clausewitz emphasized violence as the constant nature of war and defined war as using force to make the enemy submit to political will.

“Despairing over his contemporaries' relative lack of interest about fighting, Clausewitz emphasized violence in war to the point of elevating violence as the constant nature of war, and he defined war as the use of force to make the enemy submit to our (political) will.26”

• cites [26] 26. Huntington, Soldier and the State.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Huntington's solution envisioned a narrow military domain focused on force and keeping the military separate from politics.

“This was Huntington's solution, which envisaged a narrow military domain that focuses on use of force and keeping the military separate from politics.39”

• cites [39]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Hoffman saw the main problem with the definition of political warfare as not only its use of nonmilitary means but their employment short of war, since if it is short of war it is not warfare.

“Hoffman saw the main problem with the definition of political warfare was not only that it employed nonmilitary means, but that they were employed”

• cites [46]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Kennan's choice made sense because political warfare is also waged in the gray zone between war and peace.

“This choice made sense because political warfare too is waged in the gray zone between war and peace.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Kennan defined political warfare as applying Clausewitz's doctrine in peacetime and employing all national means short of war to achieve national objectives.

“He defined political warfare as”

• cites [32]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Huntington has been accused of misunderstanding Clausewitz, who on another reading rejected a politically neutral military waging compartmentalized war apart from society.

“Huntington has since been accused of misunderstanding Clausewitz, who according to a different reading rejected a politically neutral military that waged compartmentalized war in isolation from the surrounding society.40”

• cites [40]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Violent capacity allows both the maintenance of political order and the undemocratic seizure of power.

“Violent capacity allows not only maintaining political order, but also undemocratic seizure of power.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The Western military profession is founded on the ideal of being apolitical.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The military's special remit is the use of violence.

May combine two claims.

The evolution made hybrid war an ambiguous catchall concept that risks reinventing the wheel.

“This evolution turned hybrid war into an ambiguous catchall concept, which constantly risks reinventing the wheel.”

May combine two claims.

Hoffman's concept focused on combining regular and irregular means predominantly at the operational level and during war, whereas the concept has moved toward Gerasimov's and Kennan's strategic-level emphasis on nonmilitary means in the gray zone.

“Whereas Hoffman's concept focused on combining regular and irregular means and ways predominantly on the operational level and during times of war, the concept has moved toward Gerasimov's and Kennan's strategic-level emphasis of nonmilitary means in the gray zone.”

May combine two claims.

Clausewitz elevated violence to the guiding principle of war and held that wars are decided through violence, with political goals best achieved by forcing enemies to submit.

“Clausewitz elevated violence to the guiding principle of war and saw that wars are decided through violence; political goals in war were best achieved by forcing enemies to their knees.”

• cites [42]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Equating hybrid war with Russian foreign policy lacks conceptual clarity and distorts reality.

“First, this equation lacks conceptual clarity and skews the understanding of reality by connecting dots in what may be unwarranted places.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Huntington believed effectiveness required leaving military matters to professionals under objective civilian control.

“Huntington saw that effectiveness dictated leaving military matters to professionals, who acted under”

• cites [29] 29. Glenn W. LaFantasie, C. Thomas Thorne Jr., and David S. Patterson (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1996), https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945-50Intel/d292; and John Lewis Gaddis, George F. Kennan: An American Life (New York: Penguin Group, 2011), 316-19.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Clausewitz's understanding of strategy has been criticized for overemphasizing what is now called the operational level of war.

“Clausewitz's understanding of strategy has been criticized as focusing too much on what is understood today as the operational level of war.36”

• cites [36]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Kennan did little better than Clausewitz in addressing the consequences broader strategy causes to the military profession.

“Kennan fared little better in addressing the consequences broader strategy causes to the military profession.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Lasswell feared garrison states dominated by the military during World War II.

“This type of loss of democratic political control was also what Lasswell feared during World War II when he described”

• cites [37]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The question of whether warfare can be compartmentalized highlights two understandings of strategy-broad grand strategy and narrow military strategy-and raises the question of who owns war.

“The question of whether warfare can be thus compartmentalized highlights the two understandings of strategy-broad grand strategy and narrow military strategyand ultimately begs the question of who owns war.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

For Clausewitz, strategy was the theory of using combats for the object of war, and tactics the theory of using military forces in combat.

“For Clausewitz, strategy was”

• cites [30] 30. Hoffman, "On Not-So-New Warfare."Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Assuming only adversaries have active strategies reveals a limited understanding of strategy and a lack of urgency to master hybrid war.

“The assumption that only our adversaries possess active strategies betrays a limited understanding and practice of strategy and a lack of urgency to master hybrid war.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The more contemporary understanding of hybrid war conflates it with gray zone conflict and makes the implications for the military profession unavoidable.

“In other words, the more contemporary understanding of hybrid war conflates it with gray zone conflict and makes it impossible to avoid the implications to the military profession.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Samuel Huntington called officers managers of violence, said a military force's function is successful armed combat, and argued the military is a profession.

“Samuel Huntington famously built on the definition when he dubbed officers”

• cites [28] 28. Office of the Historian, "292. National Security Council Directive on Office of Special Projects," in Foreign Relations of the United States 1945-1950, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment, ed.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Strategy is central to the military profession because it connects war and politics.

“Strategy lies at the core of the military profession because it bridges war and politics.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Honig argued that Clausewitz's definition of the strategic object provided a clear-cut professional remit for the military, allowing them to destroy enemy armed forces independently without constant political oversight.

“As Jan Willem Honig puts it,”

• cites [43]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Kennan's political warfare began from premises similar to those of hybrid war.

“Kennan's political warfare departed from similar premises.”

May combine two claims.

Gerasimov held that nonmilitary means can ignite armed conflict in a previously flourishing state, justifying foreign intervention.

“According to Gerasimov, nonmilitary means can be used to ignite an armed conflict in a previously flourishing state that justifies a decisive intervention by foreign forces.12”

• cites [12] 12. Samuel P. Huntington, The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations, rev. ed. (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1981), 11.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Gray zone conflict implies that nonviolent means are not used during war or within the traditional military domain.

“While the evolution of hybrid war stemmed from the emphasis given to nonviolent means, the gray zone furthermore suggests these means are not employed during war or the traditional military domain.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The military profession's domain was thus war, warfare, or the use of violence in war.

“The domain of the military profession thus constituted war and warfare or use of violence in war.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

If Clausewitz held that all war is violent, he would probably not have counted activities without violence as war or warfare.

“if indeed all war is violent in the manner Clausewitz believed, it is unlikely that he would have recognized activities that lack violence as constituting war or warfare.34”

• cites [34]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The blurred line between war and peace questions established norms of civil-military relations and the boundaries of acceptable military action.

“To offer only one concrete example, the blurred line between war and peace questions established norms of civil-military relations and the boundaries of acceptable military action.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The discussion suggests it is necessary to go further than Gerasimov and the Russian military, which appears to have shifted little from its core focus on conventional warfighting.

“This discussion suggests it is necessary to go further than Gerasimov and the Russian military, which appears to have shifted little from its core focus on conventional warfighting.50”

• cites [50]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

It is uncertain whether Gerasimov's plea led to substantial action among Russian scientists or military professionals.

“It is uncertain whether Gerasimov's plea led to substantial action among Russian scientists or military professionals.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Gerasimov reasoned that the new context of war raises logical questions about what modern war is, what the army should prepare for, and how it should be armed.

“Early on, Gerasimov reasoned the new context where war is waged leads to logical questions:”

• cites [47]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The purpose of Gerasimov's 2013 presentation was to prod Russian military experts to think harder.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Most discussions of hybrid war continue to revolve around Russia, equating the concept with Russian actions and saying little about the world at large.

“Most discussions of hybrid war continue to revolve around Russia, equating the concept with its actions and saying little about the world at large.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Ambiguity in these concepts hinders better understanding of contemporary war and warfare and better policy.

“While this kind of conceptual vagueness can explain in part the popularity of these concepts in policy circles, ambiguity hinders a better understanding of contemporary war and warfare, and ultimately a better policy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Most practitioners can agree that military means alone will not suffice when faced with fundamentally political problems.

“What most practitioners can agree on, however, is that military means alone will not suffice when faced with fundamentally political problems.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Conceptual vagueness can partly explain the popularity of these concepts in policy circles.

“While this kind of conceptual vagueness can explain in part the popularity of these concepts in policy circles, ambiguity hinders a better understanding of contemporary war and warfare, and ultimately a better policy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The aims sought in war may not be best delivered through death and destruction or the threat of it.

“On the other hand, the aims sought in war may not be best delivered through death and destruction or the threat of it.49”

• cites [49]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

If hybrid war is waged only by Russia, then it does not describe a more general type of war.

“If hybrid war is something only waged by Russia, then it logically does not describe a more general type of war.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Equating political competition with war risks expanding the military sphere and militarizing foreign policy and potentially whole societies.

“Equaling political competition with war risks expanding the military sphere and militarizing not only foreign policy, but potentially whole societies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Much content in hybrid war discussions concerning Russia resembles Cold War debates, risking reinventing the wheel.

“Much content in the hybrid war discussions that concern Russia resembles Cold War debates, and hence risk reinventing the wheel.48”

• cites [48]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The use of similar strategies tying together military and nonmilitary means in Afghanistan suggests inherent challenges.

“The use of similar kinds of strategy that sought to tie together various military and nonmilitary means in Afghanistan suggests inherent challenges.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

From the perspective of strategic theory, this development must be understood to emphasize grand strategy applying all available means at the cost of narrow military strategy focused on violence.

“From the strategic theory perspective, this development must be understood to emphasize grand strategy that applies all available means at the cost of narrow military strategy that focuses on mere violence.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Like political warfare, hybrid war and gray zone conflict are as broad as grand strategy.

“Like political warfare, both these concepts are equal to grand strategy in their breadth.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Hybrid war has entered academic, policy, and public debates but often as a poorly defined neologism.

“While hybrid war has entered academic, policy, and public debates, it still frequently does so in the guise of a poorly defined neologism.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Relying on force has become more expensive and hence difficult.

“On one hand, relying on force has become more expensive and hence difficult.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The situation with gray zone conflict is only slightly better than with hybrid war.

“The situation is only slightly better with gray zone conflict.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

In its evolved form, hybrid war is a buzzword that can mean almost anything.

“In its evolved form, hybrid war is a buzzword that can mean almost anything.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Hoffman's later comments show his concept focused on the operational level and gave primacy to military means-use of force-in a context clearly a war.

“As his later comments demonstrate, his concept focused on the operational level and gave primacy to military means-use of force-in a context that was clearly a war.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

It is far from certain whether passive strategy can safeguard our interests.

“To make matters worse, it is far from certain whether passive strategy can safeguard our interests.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Forfeiting active strategy risks leaves us as passive defenders of the status quo rather than creators of a new one.

“In any case, forfeiting active strategy risks leaves us as passive defenders of the status quo, not creators of a new”