Getting Ready for Post-Quantum Cryptography: Exploring Challenges Associated with Adopting and Using Post-Quantum Cryptographic Algorithms
Open accessPublished version of a preprint
Abstract
Cryptographic technologies are used throughout government and industry to authenticate the source and protect the confidentiality and integrity of information that we communicate and store. The paper describes the impact of quantum computing technology on classical cryptography, particularly on public-key cryptographic systems. This paper also introduces adoption challenges associated with post-quantum cryptography after the standardization process is completed. Planning requirements for migration to post-quantum cryptography are discussed. The paper concludes with NIST’s next steps for helping with the migration to post-quantum cryptography.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Attack analysis of currently available post-quantum approaches is somewhat limited and their incorporation into existing legacy systems and applications is challenging and expected to take more time.
“Besides, attack analysis of currently available approaches is also somewhat limited and their incorporation into existing (legacy) systems and applications is challenging and is expected to take more time [190].”
From Zero Trust Architecture (ZTA): A Comprehensive Survey (2022) · cites this paper as [190]
The Post-Quantum Cryptography section says candidate algorithms are unsuitable as drop-in replacements and that implementation may take 5 to 15 or more years after standards are published, supporting the integration and timing claims. The passages do not establish that attack analysis of the available approaches is limited. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Report on Post-Quantum Cryptography
Chen, L., Jordan, S., Liu, Y.-K., Moody, D., Peralta, R., Perlner, R., & Smith-Tone, D. (2016) · doi:10.6028/nist.ir.8105 · Cited by 1,034 · see citing works
Status report on the second round of the NIST post-quantum cryptography standardization process
Moody, D., Alagic, G., Apon, D. C., Cooper, D. A., Dang, Q. H., Kelsey, J. M., Liu, Y.-K., Miller, C. A., Peralta, R. C., Perlner, R. A., et al. (2020) · doi:10.6028/nist.ir.8309 · Cited by 296 · see citing works
Cryptography Standards in Quantum Time: New Wine in an Old Wineskin?
Chen, L. (2017) · IEEE Security & Privacy · doi:10.1109/msp.2017.3151339 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Zero Trust Architecture (ZTA): A Comprehensive Survey
Syed, N. F., Shah, S. W., Shaghaghi, A., Anwar, A., Baig, Z., & Doss, R. (2022) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2022.3174679 · Cited by 406 · see citing works
Quantum Cryptography in 5G Networks: A Comprehensive Overview
Mehić, M., Michálek, L., Dervisevic, E., Burdiak, P., Plakalovic, M., Rozhon, J., Mahovac, N., Richter, F., Kaljić, E., Lauterbach, F., et al. (2023) · IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials · doi:10.1109/comst.2023.3309051 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Quantum-resistant Transport Layer Security
García, C. R., Rommel, S., Takarabt, S., Olmos, J. J. V., Guilley, S., Nguyen, P. E., & Monroy, I. T. (2023) · Computer Communications · doi:10.1016/j.comcom.2023.11.010 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
PMMP-PQC Migration Management Process✱
von Nethen, N., Wiesmaier, A., Alnahawi, N., & Henrich, J. (2024) · European Interdisciplinary Cybersecurity Conference (EICC) · doi:10.1145/3655693.3655719 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
A Practical Implementation of Post-Quantum Cryptography for Secure Wireless Communication
Ojetunde, B., Kurihara, T., Yano, K., Sakano, T., & Yokoyama, H. (2025) · Network · doi:10.3390/network5020020 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Son, U., & Huh, J. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems · doi:10.1109/tits.2025.3560809 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Bizri, M. E., El‐Hajj, A. M., Sliman, L., & Haidar, A. M. (2026) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2025.3650465 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Challenges in the Transition towards a Quantum-safe Government
Kong, I., Janssen, M., & Bharosa, N. (2022) · Annual International Conference on Digital Government Research · doi:10.1145/3543434.3543644 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Ojetunde, B., Kurihara, T., Yano, K., Sakano, T., & Yokoyama, H. (2023) · International Conference on Computer and Automation Engineering · doi:10.1109/iccae56788.2023.10111350 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The 'Prime Factors' of Quantum Cryptography RegulationPreprint
Rand, L., & Rand, T. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3904342 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Transitioning Towards Quantum-Safe Government
Kong, I. (2022) · International Conference on Theory and Practice of Electronic Governance · doi:10.1145/3560107.3560182 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
EU Cybersecurity Regulation in the Quantum Age
Davis, P. A. E., Aboy, M., Bygrave, L. A., Minssen, T., Gasser, U., & Compagnucci, M. C. (2026) · Perspectives in law, business and innovation · doi:10.1007/978-981-95-8371-3_5 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Post-Quantum Cryptography Standards for Future Proof IoT Security: A Literature Review
Nelufule, N. (2025) · International Conference on Intelligent Digitization of Systems and Services (IDSS) · doi:10.1109/idss67199.2025.11398245 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
A Cognitive Distortion based BB84 Protocol for Data Transmission in Intelligent System
Poorani, S., & Anitha, R. (2022) · International Conference on Electronics, Communication and Aerospace Technology (ICECA) · doi:10.1109/iceca55336.2022.10009227 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
A Multi-Level Rule Model for Selecting Post-Quantum Cryptography in 5G Application and Beyond
Ojetunde, B., Kurihara, T., Yano, K., Sakano, T., & Yokoyama, H. (2024) · International Conference on Consumer Electronics · doi:10.1109/icce59016.2024.10444292 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Sustainable Security: Exploring Longevity Challenges and Solutions for IoT
Bradley, C. (2023) · doi:10.22215/etd/2023-15723 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
New Block Cipher Encryption Based On OTP Algorithm
Al-Nemri, J., & Naser, M. (2022) · International Conference on Engineering & MIS (ICEMIS) · doi:10.1109/icemis56295.2022.9914376 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Supporting the Future Effectiveness of Post-Quantum Cryptography
Moon, A., & Vermeer, M. J. D. (2023) · RAND Corporation eBooks · doi:10.7249/pea2690-1
Toward a Common Understanding of Cryptographic Agility: A Systematic Review
Näther, C., Herzinger, D., Steghöfer, J.-P., Gazdag, S.-L., Hirsch, E., & Loebenberger, D. (2026) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2026.3728196 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Advanced Cyber Defense for Space Missions and Operations
Anwar, N., Rahaman, M., Sinambela, M., Tangkudung, R. R. S., Syahputra, F. F., Iswahyudi, R. T., & Yuhefizar, Y. (2025) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-8034-5.ch029
Organizational Adoption of Post-Quantum Cryptography: Drivers, Barriers, and Strategic Implications
Zimmermann, D., Rajsingh, P. V., Cruz, E. D. L., Queiroz, H. J. D. S. D., Rana, S., & Nadella, G. S. (2025) · Cyber Awareness and Research Symposium (CARS) · doi:10.1109/cars67163.2025.11337269 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
HIRZ: Hybrid Post-Quantum Cryptography for Secure Long-Term Data Archiving
Alajmi, W., Alsafi, F., Aldhafyan, R., Alshammari, L. F., Almutairi, A., & Batouche, M. (2026) · Learning and Technology Conference (L&T) · doi:10.1109/lt68265.2026.11592519
Designing a Quantum-Resistant PKI Framework For National ID Systems
Aldaleh, A. F., Satrya, G. B., & Omran, M. G. H. (2026) · IEEE International Conference on Industry 4.0, Artificial Intelligence, and Communications Technology (IAICT) · doi:10.1109/iaict71158.2026.11620873
Auditable Conformance and Cross-Library Interoperability Testing for ML-KEM and ML-DSA
Xie, S., Lu, X., Wang, H., & Zhao, H. (2026) · Computers · doi:10.3390/computers15100642
- Authors
- Barker, W., Polk, W., & Souppaya, M.
- Published
- 2021-04
- OpenAlex
- W4285523545
- Cited by
- 24
- References
- 3
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 1
- Type
- report
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Funders
- Information Technology Laboratory
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Quantum Information and Cryptography
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Cryptography and Data Security
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Cryptography and Residue Arithmetic
- Keywords
- post-quantum cryptography, quantum computing threats, public-key cryptography, migration planning, NIST standardization
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
