CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 239Meta-analysis and systematic reviewsStatistical Methods in EpidemiologyAcademic Writing and Publishing

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 69 of the 69 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Ten common statistical mistakes to watch out for when writing or reviewing a manuscript

Open access
Makin, Tamar R, Orban de Xivry, Jean-Jacques·2019·eLife
DOI 10.7554/elife.48175PMC PMC6785265
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

Inspired by broader efforts to make the conclusions of scientific research more robust, we have compiled a list of some of the most common statistical mistakes that appear in the scientific literature. The mistakes have their origins in ineffective experimental designs, inappropriate analyses and/or flawed reasoning. We provide advice on how authors, reviewers and readers can identify and resolve these mistakes and, we hope, avoid them in the future.

Overview

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.7554/elife.48175

Cites

69 of 69 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Figures

Figure 1. Interpreting comparisons between two effects without directly comparing them. (A) Two variables, X and Y, were measured for two groups A and B. It looks clear that the correlation between these two variables does not differ across these two groups. However, if one compares both correlation coefficients to zero by calculating the significance of the Pearson's correlation coefficient r, it is possible to find that one group (group A; black circles; n = 20) has a statistically significant correlation (based on a threshold of p≤0.05), whereas the other group (group B, red circles; n = 20) does not. However, this does not indicate that the correlation between the variables X and Y differs between these groups. Monte Carlo simulations can be used to compare the correlations in the two groups (Wilcox and Tian, 2008). (B) In another experimental context, one can look at how a specific outcome measure (e.g. the difference pre- and post-training) differs between two groups. The means for groups C and D are the same, but the variance for group D is higher. If one uses a one-sample t-test to compare this outcome measure to zero for each group separately, it is possible to find that, this variable is significantly different from zero for one group (group C; left; n = 20), but not for the other group (group D, right; n = 20). However, this does not inform us whether this outcome measure is different between the two groups. Instead, one should directly compare the two groups by using an unpaired t-test (top): this shows that this outcome measure is not different for the two groups. Code (including the simulated data) available at github.com/jjodx/InferentialMistakes (Makin and Orban de Xivry, 2019; https://github.com/elifesciences-publications/InferentialMistakes).
Figure 1. Interpreting comparisons between two effects without directly comparing them. (A) Two variables, X and Y, were measured for two groups A and B. It looks clear that the correlation between these two variables does not differ across these two groups. However, if one compares both correlation coefficients to zero by calculating the significance of the Pearson's correlation coefficient r, it is possible to find that one group (group A; black circles; n = 20) has a statistically significant correlation (based on a threshold of p≤0.05), whereas the other group (group B, red circles; n = 20) does not. However, this does not indicate that the correlation between the variables X and Y differs between these groups. Monte Carlo simulations can be used to compare the correlations in the two groups (Wilcox and Tian, 2008). (B) In another experimental context, one can look at how a specific outcome measure (e.g. the difference pre- and post-training) differs between two groups. The means for groups C and D are the same, but the variance for group D is higher. If one uses a one-sample t-test to compare this outcome measure to zero for each group separately, it is possible to find that, this variable is significantly different from zero for one group (group C; left; n = 20), but not for the other group (group D, right; n = 20). However, this does not inform us whether this outcome measure is different between the two groups. Instead, one should directly compare the two groups by using an unpaired t-test (top): this shows that this outcome measure is not different for the two groups. Code (including the simulated data) available at github.com/jjodx/InferentialMistakes (Makin and Orban de Xivry, 2019; https://github.com/elifesciences-publications/InferentialMistakes).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 2. Spurious correlations: the effect of a single outlier and of subgroups on Pearson’s correlation coefficients. (A–C) We simulated two different uncorrelated variables with 19 samples (black circles) and added an additional data point (solid red circle) whose distance from the main population was systematically varied until it became a formal outlier (panel C). Note that the value of Pearson’s correlation coefficient R artificially increases as the distance between the main population and the red data point is increased, demonstrating that a single data point can lead to spurious Pearson’s correlations. (D–F) We simulated two different uncorrelated variables with 20 sample that were arbitrarily divided into two subgroups (red vs. black, N = 10 each). We systematically varied the distance between the two subgroups from panel D to panel F. Again, the value of R artificially increases as the distance between the subgroups is increased. This shows that correlating variables without taking the existence of subgroups into account can yield spurious correlations. Confidence intervals (CI) are shown in grey, and were obtained via a bootstrap procedure (with the grey region representing the region between the 2.5 and 97.5 percentiles of the obtained distribution of correlation values). Code (including the simulated data) available at github.com/jjodx/InferentialMistakes.
Figure 2. Spurious correlations: the effect of a single outlier and of subgroups on Pearson’s correlation coefficients. (A–C) We simulated two different uncorrelated variables with 19 samples (black circles) and added an additional data point (solid red circle) whose distance from the main population was systematically varied until it became a formal outlier (panel C). Note that the value of Pearson’s correlation coefficient R artificially increases as the distance between the main population and the red data point is increased, demonstrating that a single data point can lead to spurious Pearson’s correlations. (D–F) We simulated two different uncorrelated variables with 20 sample that were arbitrarily divided into two subgroups (red vs. black, N = 10 each). We systematically varied the distance between the two subgroups from panel D to panel F. Again, the value of R artificially increases as the distance between the subgroups is increased. This shows that correlating variables without taking the existence of subgroups into account can yield spurious correlations. Confidence intervals (CI) are shown in grey, and were obtained via a bootstrap procedure (with the grey region representing the region between the 2.5 and 97.5 percentiles of the obtained distribution of correlation values). Code (including the simulated data) available at github.com/jjodx/InferentialMistakes.CC BY · PubMed Central

Verification

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Sorted by citations

See all 239

Related

See all

Metadata

Authors
Makin, T. R., & Orban de Xivry, J.-J.
Affiliations
  • University College London (GB)
  • Movement Control and Neuroplasticity Research Group, Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
Corresponding author
Makin, Tamar R
ORCID
Venue
eLife
Publisher
eLife Sciences Publications, Ltd
Published
2019-10-09
Volume
8
ISSN
2050-084X (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.7554/elife.48175
PMC
PMC6785265
OpenAlex
W2979345840
Cited by
238
References
69
Citations by year
2026: 17 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 43 · 2022: 38 · 2021: 43 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 2
FWCI
17.78
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • eLife (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Lirias (KU Leuven) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
Funders
Wellcome Trust (215575/Z/19/Z)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
  • Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Epidemiology
  • Social Sciences › Library and Information Sciences › Academic Writing and Publishing
Keywords
statistical errors, research misconduct, manuscript review, experimental design flaws, research robustness, scientific writing
MeSH terms
Humans, Manuscripts, Medical as Topic, Statistics as Topic

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review