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Self-medication with Antibiotics in WHO Southeast Asian Region: A Systematic Review
Open accessAbstract
Antibiotics are essential treatments, especially in the developing world like World Health Organization (WHO) Southeast Asian region where infectious diseases are still the most common cause of death. In this part of the world, antibiotics are purchased and used without the prescription of a physician. Self-medication of antibiotics is associated with the risk of inappropriate drug use, which predisposes patients to drug interactions, masking symptoms of an underlying disease, and development of microbial resistance. Antibiotic resistance is shrinking the range of effective antibiotics and is a global health problem. The appearance of multidrug-resistant bacterial strains, which are highly resistant to many antibiotic classes, has raised a major concern regarding antibiotic resistance worldwide. Even after decades of economic growth and development in countries that belong to the WHO Southeast Asian region, most of the countries in this region still have a high burden of infectious diseases. The magnitude and consequence of self-medication with antibiotics is unknown in this region. There is a need for evidence from well-designed studies on community use of antibiotics in these settings to help in planning and implementing specific strategies and interventions to prevent their irrational use and consequently to reduce the spread of antibiotic resistance. To quantify the frequency and effect of self-medication with antibiotics, we did a systematic review of published work from the Southeast Asian region.
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“Among the different channels from which patients in LMICs can access antibiotics, CDROs have been identified to be a predominant source of antibiotics for the wider population [19–22].”
From No prescription? No problem: drivers of non-prescribed sale of antibiotics among community drug retail outlets in low and middle income countries: a systematic review of qualitative studies (2021) · cites this paper as [21]
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“This finding aligns with research by Gaurav Nepal et al, which reported that 79.6% of pharmacies in Nepal dispensed antibiotics for URI without a prescription. 17”
From Evaluation of antibiotic dispensing without prescription by community pharmacies: a simulated patient study (2025) · cites this paper as [17]
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Cited by
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Items 201–271 of 271
A Cross-Sectional Study of Antibiotic Self-Medication
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Prevalence and predictors of self-medication for COVID-19 among slum dwellers in Jinja City, UgandaPreprint
Nakito, P., Kisakye, A. N., Walekhwa, A. W., Tumukunde, G., Mutesi, C., Muhumuza, N., Nyamor, C., Musoke, D., Musinguzi, G., & Byonanebye, D. M. (2023) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.09.08.23295267 · Cited by 3
Self-medication with antibiotics among youths from Myanmar
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“The prevalence of self-medication with antibiotics varies across the countries, and such studies are still limited in Myanmar.”
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“Countries in the WHO Southeast Asian region, like India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Indonesia, Korea, Sri Lanka, and Thailand, have high self-medication [21; 56] (see Figure E1 and E2 in Appendix).”
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KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDE AND PRACTICE OF SELF-MEDICATION AMONG PEOPLE OF CENTRAL MONROVIA, LIBERIA
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“Headaches, fevers and pains have been observed to be common reasons for SM in previous studies [56–59].”
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“URTI symptoms are one of the most common illness for patients to SMA in South East Asia.(8) In this study, 60% of the respondents SMA for symptoms related to URTI.”
BackgroundInfluentialPatient Behavior: An Extensive Review
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“The sample size was determined by the following criteria: confidence interval (1-α) of 95%, absolute precision (d) of 15%, and proportion of antibiotic self-medication (p) of 42% from the previous study [12].”
ResultAhmad, S. A., Razvi, N., Ahmed, S., Rehman, F. K., Ishaqui, A. A., Imran, S., Imran, M., Farooq, J., Rahman, A., Shaikh, A. M., et al. (2023) · Liaquat Medical Research Journal · doi:10.38106/lmrj.2023.5.3-04 · Cited by 1
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(2023) · International Journal of Agriculture and Biosciences · doi:10.47278/book.zoon/2023.86 · Cited by 1
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Epidemiological Study of Antibiotic Self-Medication in Tehran 1399: A Descriptive Study
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“It seems that high use of amoxicillin may be limited due to its low cost, easy availability, and limited side effects [30].”
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Self-Medication -An Intensifying Global Concern
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Metadata
- Authors
- Nepal, G., & Bhatta, S.
- Affiliations
- Tribhuvan University (NP)
- Corresponding author
- Nepal, Gaurav
- ORCID
- Nepal, Gaurav
- Venue
- Cureus
- Published
- 2018-04-05
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- e2428-e2428
- ISSN
- 2168-8184 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5988199
- OpenAlex
- W2796257797
- Cited by
- 272
- References
- 38
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 36 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 55 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 43 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 23 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 3.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Cureus (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › Antibiotic Use and Resistance
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Microbiology (medical) › Antibiotic Resistance in Bacteria
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
- Keywords
- self-medication, antibiotics, antibiotic resistance, multidrug resistance, inappropriate medication use, community antibiotic use, Southeast Asia, infectious diseases, antimicrobial stewardship
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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