The DOI matches its Crossref record, with a small difference in title or year; 22 of the 22 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 23 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Eagle and the Snake, or anzû and bašmu?: Another Mythological Dimension in the Epic of Etana
Open accessAbstract
Much of the surviving text of the Epic of Etana tells the story of an eagle and a snake. The eagle and snake are extraordinary creatures, and their story abounds with mythological subtext. This paper argues that the Neo-Assyrian recension of Etana was amended to include explicit references to the eagle and the snake by the names of their mythological counterparts, anzû and bašmu. These references occur in two analogous contexts and serve the same narrative purpose: to dehumanize the other when the eagle and the snake seek to do each other harm. The deliberate character of these changes and their symmetry suggest that they are the product of a conscientious scribe with a developed literary sensibility.
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- Findingown data§ much ado about -mi
Lines 40 and 96 introduce the eagle's speech to its children with the same formula, differing only in the ventive on īpuš in line 96.
“Lines 40 and 96 both introduce the eagle's direct speech to its children using the same formula, the only difference being the appearance of the ventive on the verb īpuš in l .96 .38”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation§ enter anzû
The Old Babylonian Susa Tablet lines 23'-24' contain part of the snake's accusation against the eagle, calling it a doer of evil and abomination who kept evil against its companion.
“Lines 23'-24' of the Old Babylonian Susa Tablet of Etana preserve part of the snake's indictment of the eagle .18 In these lines, the snake denounces the eagle to Šamaš as: ēpiš lemu[tti u a]nzilli mukīl lem [utt]i ana ibrīšu the perpetrator of evil and abomination, who harbored evil against its comrade .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ much ado about -mi
The -mi is also missing from the corresponding line in the Old Babylonian Susa Tablet.
“The -mi is likewise absent from the analogous line in the Old Babylonian Susa Tablet .35”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given§ SourceS for the eagle and the Snake
The basic plot of the eagle-and-snake episode remains the same over time.
“The fundamental plot of this episode is constant through time .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given§ much ado about -mi
Phonetic complements occur frequently in the Neo-Assyrian manuscripts of Etana.
“phonetic complements are plentiful in the Neo-Assyrian Etana manuscripts .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingreasoning§ SourceS for the eagle and the Snake
Where Neo-Assyrian Etana manuscripts overlap, their text has no meaningful differences.
“Wherever the contents of Neo-Assyrian Etana manuscripts overlap, there are no meaningful differences in the text they record .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given§ much ado about -mi
Many direct-speech instances in Etana cannot be distinguished semantically or syntactically from the passage containing -mi.
“But this too is not unique: many of the instances of direct speech in Etana are not semantically or syntactically distinguishable from the passage featuring -mi .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ much ado about -mi
The particle -mi is not attested anywhere else in the Neo-Assyrian Etana manuscripts.
“Nowhere else in any Neo-Assyrian Etana manuscript is this particle attested .34”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ much ado about -mi
Among the relevant terms beginning with MUŠ, bašmu is the only one with final consonant /m/.
“It is also the only relevant term with a final consonant /m/ .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
In IM 51292 and IM 51328, the snakes are collectively identified with bašmu in a couplet parallel to CBS 7005.
“These snakes are identified collectively with bašmu in a couplet that is parallel to that of ll .4 and 5 of CBS 7005, in which the lurking snake is replaced by the lurking bašmu .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
In CBS 7005, the couplet identifies the lurking MUŠ with the lurking bašmu.
“The rhetorical centerpiece of the incantation is the couplet identifying the MUŠ with bašmu:”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
Analogously, the eagle refers to the snake as bašmu when it intends harm.
“Analogously, the eagle is made to refer to the snake as bašmu when it means the snake harm .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
One change in the Neo-Assyrian recension concerns the two known moments when the eagle and snake express intention to harm each other.
“One of these changes concerns the two known moments when the eagle and the snake express their intention to do each other harm .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
The Neo-Assyrian recension of Etana changes the inherited text in numerous ways.
“The Neo-Assyrian recension of Etana changes the inherited text in numerous ways .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
In the Neo-Assyrian recension of Etana, the snake refers to the eagle as anzû when it intends harm.
“In the Neo-Assyrian recension of Etana, the snake is made to refer to the eagle as anzû when it means the eagle harm .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
The identification of MUŠ with bašmu in scribal usage can be seen in some snake incantations.
“The identification of the sign MUŠ with bašmu in scribal usage can be discerned in some snake incantations .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
The duplicated snake incantations IM 51292 and IM 51328 use the same rhetorical turn as CBS 7005.
“The same rhetorical turn is at work in the duplicated snake incantations IM 51292 and IM 51328, which begin with the words aṣbat pî ṣērī kalîma u kursiddam (”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Finkel 1999: 226-27
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Findingreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
The composition ṣēru šikinšu treats bašmu as a variety of MUŠ.
“The composition ṣēru šikinšu (”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
In one last group of texts, the sign MUŠ could be read straightforwardly as bašmu.
“In one last group of texts, however, it appears that the sign MUŠ could be read straightforwardly as bašmu .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
In ṣēru šikinšu, at least one surviving snake description is of bašmu, though the name is broken.
“Based on the surviving descriptions of snakes in ṣēru šikinšu, at least one of them is the bašmu, though the portion of the text that would preserve the name is broken .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
A set of texts exists in which a divine figure defeats a chaos monster, and the monster's role can be filled by an anzû-like or bašmu-like creature.
“indeed, a whole set of texts involving the defeat of a chaos monster by a divine figure, in which the role of chaos monster can be occupied either by an anzû-or bašmu -like creature .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Pongratz-Leisten 2015: 233-38 source
- Interpretationown data§ much ado about -mi
Although these two pairs of lines are parallel in actor, audience, verb and form, -mi appears only in the earlier passage.
“Although these two pairs of lines offer parallel constructions involving the same actor speaking to the same audience using the same verb in the same form, -mi appears only in the earlier passage .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ much ado about -mi
There is no compelling reason for -mi to appear in one instance and not in the others.
“There is therefore no compelling reason why -mi should feature in one instance and not in the others .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ much ado about -mi
If -mi is a phonetic complement, then MUŠ in the passage must stand for a noun ending in /m/ rather than for ṣēru.
“If -mi is a phonetic complement, then MUŠ must represent not ṣēru, but an analogous noun with final consonant /m/.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ much ado about -mi
All grammatical explanations of -mi in this context share this same basic problem.
“All grammatical readings of -mi in this context suffer from this same basic problem .39”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ much ado about -mi
The -mi in the Etana passage should be interpreted as a phonetic complement to MUŠ rather than as the particle of direct speech.
“Instead of the particle of direct speech, I suggest that -mi should be read as a phonetic complement to MUŠ .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ much ado about -mi
bašmu is a mythical creature associated with attempts to subvert the divine order.
“Like anzû, bašmu is a mythical creature associated with efforts to subvert the divine dispensation .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Wiggermann 1992: 166-68
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationown data§ SourceS for the eagle and the Snake
In Etana, the eagle and snake are conceived as an eagle and a snake, not as anzû and bašmu.
“The eagle and the snake of Etana are clearly conceived of as an eagle and a snake rather than as anzû and bašmu .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
The term bašmu carries a sense of something fearsome and otherworldly in both its monstrous and divine uses.
“Both usages preserve the tenor of the term bašmu as something fearsome and otherworldly.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ much ado about -mi
If -mi has a grammatical function, it is not clear what would require it in one passage but not in any others.
“If -mi has a grammatical function, then it is not obvious what it might be that requires it in one passage but not in any others .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ much ado about -mi
In Tablet 14 of Ura = ḫubullu, bašmu is listed among creatures whose names begin with the sign MUŠ.
“In Tablet 14 of the lexical list Ura = ḫubullu, the term bašmu is attested among the creatures whose names begin with the sign MUŠ .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Landsberger 1962: 7-10
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ much ado about -mi
The deliberate change from anzilli to anzû helps explain a textual oddity in one Neo-Assyrian Etana passage.
“The deliberate character of the change from anzilli to anzû can serve to clarify a textual curiosity in one passage of the Neo-Assyrian recension of Etana .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ much ado about -mi
The plotline of KAR 6 closely resembles that of the Anzû epic, with a monstrous creature disrupting divine order before a god eliminates it.
“The plotline here is remarkably similar to that of the Anzû epic, involving a monstrous creature undoing the divine order before being eliminated by a god .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Foster 2005: 579
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationnone given§ introduction
The Neo-Assyrian version of Etana was altered to name the eagle and snake explicitly as their mythological equivalents, anzû and bašmu.
“This paper argues that the Neo-Assyrian recension of Etana was amended to include explicit references to the eagle and the snake by the names of their mythological counterparts, anzû and bašmu .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The bašmu reference in the Neo-Assyrian Etana had not been recognized before this paper.
- Interpretationreasoning§ much ado about -mi
bašmu is a strong candidate for the noun ending in /m/ that MUŠ could represent.
“There is a strong candidate for precisely such a noun, namely the mythological serpent bašmu .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ much ado about -mi
In the Babylonian Mappa Mundi, bašmu appears alongside anzû among mythical creatures at the edges of the world.
“Bašmu likewise features with anzû among the mythical creatures at the edges of the world in the so-called Babylonian Mappa Mundi .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Horowitz 1998
- Premisecitation§ much ado about -mi
In Enūma eliš, bašmu is one of the monsters created by Tiamat.
“In the Babylonian epic of creation Enūma eliš, the bašmu features as one of the monsters spawned by Tiamat .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Enūma eliš I 141, II 27, and III 31
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Lambert 2013 source
- Interpretationown data§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
This indicates that bašmu was understood as a variety of MUŠ.
“This indicates a clear understanding of bašmu as a variety of MUŠ .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
If MUŠ could represent bašmu in astrological and astronomical texts, scribes might recognize MUŠ as bašmu in other kinds of texts as a secondary or tertiary possibility.
“If MUŠ could represent bašmu in astrological and astronomical texts, it is not a huge leap to imagine that scribes might recognize MUŠ as bašmu in other kinds of texts, too-perhaps not as the default reading, but certainly as a secondary or tertiary possibility .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
The purposeful character of these changes is reflected in their appearance at the only two points in the narrative where the eagle and snake verbalize negative intentions toward each other.
“The purposeful character of these changes is reflected in the fact that they appear at the only two points in the narrative where the eagle and the snake verbalize negative intentions toward each other .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisereasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
Figurative evidence from the first millennium BCE suggests that in astrological and astronomical contexts the sign MUŠ was read simply as bašmu at that time, broadly contemporary with the Neo-Assyrian recension of Etana.
“Figurative evidence from the first millennium bce in turn suggests that the sign MUŠ in astrological and astronomical contexts was indeed read simply as bašmu at that time, which is broadly contemporary with the Neo-Assyrian recension of Etana .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Lambert 1986: 793 source
- cites Wiggermann 1993-1997
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Weidner 1967
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisenone given§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
Astrological and astronomical texts use the sign sequence mul(d)MUŠ to represent the constellation Hydra.
“Astrological and astronomical texts use the sign sequence mul (d) MUŠ to represent the constellation Hydra .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
It also does not necessarily follow that a scribe could freely use MUŠ to represent bašmu.
“It also does not necessarily follow that a scribe could freely use the sign MUŠ to represent bašmu .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
Identifying the snake with bašmu transfers the monstrous features of bašmu onto an otherwise ordinary snake.
“Identifying the snake with bašmu transposes the monstrous features of the bašmu onto the otherwise ordinary snake .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
The eagle invokes the mythological framework that calls for bašmu's extirpation, justifying its planned violence against its companion.
“The eagle is also invoking the mythological framework that calls for the extirpation of bašmu, justifying the violence that the eagle is planning to visit upon its erstwhile companion .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
In Naram-Sîn and the Lord of Apišal, Naram-Sîn's fearsome character is conveyed by identifying his mouth with bašmu and his nails with anzû.
“in which the fearsome character of Naram-Sîn is communicated by identifying parts of him with bašmu and anzû: bašmummi pîka anzû ṣuprāka (”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Westenholz 1997: 182 source
- Interpretationreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
In CBS 7005, a malicious snake that requires an incantation is identified with the mythological bašmu.
“A malicious snake that causes harm-and thus requires the intervention of the incantation-is here identified with the mythological bašmu .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
Despite the strong semantic association between bašmu and MUŠ, it does not necessarily follow that a scribe would recognize MUŠ as bašmu in any given context.
“Despite the strong semantic association between bašmu and the sign MUŠ across different kinds of texts, it does not necessarily follow that a scribe would recognize that the logogram MUŠ was intended to represent bašmu in any given context .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
There is sufficient justification to read MUŠ-mi in Tablet 2 of the Neo-Assyrian Etana as bašmu in the genitive.
“There is sufficient justification to consider reading the sign sequence MUŠ-mi in Tablet 2 of the Neo-Assyrian recension of Etana as bašmu in the genitive case .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
The reading bašmu is supported by the emendation of anzilla to anzû.
“The reading bašmu is bolstered by the unambiguous emendation of anzilla to anzû discussed above .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .
In the Underworld Vision of an Assyrian Prince, Nergal's scepter is compared to bašmu as full of fearsomeness.
“the scepter of the netherworld deity Nergal is described as kīma bašme puluḫtu malû (”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites SAA 3 32
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 33
- Probably not a substantial claim. 23
It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown data§ SourceS for the eagle and the SnakeMiddle Assyrian and Neo-Assyrian manuscripts avoid syllabic spellings and, with one exception, use the logograms TI8MUŠEN for erû and MUŠ for ṣēru.
“By contrast, Middle Assyrian and Neo-Assyrian manuscripts refrain from syllabic spellings and with a single exception represent the eagle and the snake by the logograms TI 8 MUŠEN (erû) 17 and MUŠ (ṣēru) .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Findingcitation§ enter anzûIn one of those places, breaking the friendship oath is called anz[illa] ša ilāni, an abomination of the gods.
“In the first instance, transgressing the oath of friendship is described as anz[illa] ša ilāni (“an abomination of the gods”) .26”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingnone given§ SourceS for the eagle and the SnakeWhere the manuscripts overlap, there is strong agreement across periods, with many Old Babylonian and Middle Assyrian passages repeated almost word for word in Neo-Assyrian copies.
“Where the surviving text of the various Etana manuscripts overlaps, there is substantial congruity across time .This congruity is such that many passages of the Old Babylonian and Middle Assyrian manuscripts are reiterated nigh verbatim in their Neo-Assyrian counterparts .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingcitation§ much ado about -miThe sign mi serves as a phonetic complement for UD in line 128 of manuscript B, the same manuscript containing MUŠ-mi.
“This is true of the sign mi itself, which appears as a phonetic complement for UD in l. 128-preserved in the same manuscript B that features MUŠ-mi no less .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown data§ much ado about -miThis absence is striking because the Neo-Assyrian manuscripts contain much direct speech, including seventeen instances in Tablet 2 alone and many more across all tablets.
“This is so despite the fact that much of the surviving text from these manuscripts records direct speech, there being seventeen such instances in Tablet 2 alone and considerably more across all tablets .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Findingnone given§ much ado about -miIn that passage, the eagle, when deciding to eat the snake's young, says: I shall eat the MUŠ-mi's children: the MUŠ-mi in ... (mārī MUŠ-mi lūkulu anāku : MUŠ-mi lìb-b[a...]).
“There, the text relates that when the eagle decided to eat the snake's young, it declared: mārī MUŠ-mi lūkulu anāku : MUŠ-mi lìb-b[a…] I shall eat the MUŠ-mi's children: the MUŠ-mi in … 29”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Findingown data§ much ado about -miThe sign sequence MUŠ-mi occurs twice in the passage.
“It is also curious that the sign sequence MUŠ-mi is repeated twice in the passage, 29.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown data§ SourceS for the eagle and the SnakeIn the Old Babylonian Susa manuscript, the eagle is written syllabically as erû, and the snake is written with the logogram MUŠ for ṣēru.
“In the Old Babylonian manuscript from Susa, the eagle is identified by its Akkadian equivalent erû written out syllabically.The snake is identified by the logogram MUŠ, which represents ṣēru, the Akkadian word for snake .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Findingcitation§ enter anzûIn the other, Šamaš tells the eagle, you committed an abomination of the gods, a forbidden deed (anzilla ša ilāni asakku tākul).
“In the second instance, Šamaš says to the eagle that anzilla ša ilāni asakku tākul (“you committed an abomination of the gods, a forbidden deed”) .27”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown data§ much ado about -miMany of those direct-speech instances occur in multiple manuscripts and never have -mi.
“Many of these instances are preserved in multiple manuscripts, always without the particle -mi .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Findingown data§ much ado about -miThe contrast is clearest in Tablet 2 lines 96-97, whose pattern closely resembles the passage with -mi.
“This is starkest in ll .96 and 97 of Tablet 2, the pattern of which closely resembles that of the passage featuring -mi:”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Findingown data§ much ado about -miIn the speech that follows in lines 41 and 97, the eagle addresses its children using the precative of akālu, once in the first person singular and once in the first person plural.
“In the direct speech that follows in ll .41 and 97, the eagle each time addresses its children in the precative form of the verb akālu (to eat)-once in the first person singular and once in the first person plural.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Findingnone given§ Additional informationThese changes are restricted to this context alone.
“These changes are restricted to this context alone .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingnone given§ Additional informationWhen the eagle plots evil against the snake, it calls the snake a malicious bašmu; when the snake demands punishment, it calls the eagle a duplicitous anzû.
“When the eagle plots evil against the snake, it speaks of the snake as a malicious bašmu; when the snake demands that the eagle be punished, it speaks of it as a duplicitous anzû .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Findingown data§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .The couplet in CBS 7005 repeats the same line with only the subject changed from MUŠ to bašmu and the location changed from dwelling to rushes.
“This couplet reproduces the same line word for word, changing only the subject from MUŠ to bašmu and the subject's location from the dwelling to the rushes .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .In IM 51292 and IM 51328, bašmu is described as a monstrous creature with six mouths, seven tongues, and other frightful features, transferring its monstrosity to the malicious snake.
“As in CBS 7005, the bašmu is then described as a monstrous creature, with six mouths, seven tongues, and other frightful characteristics, once again transposing the monstrosity of the bašmu onto the malicious snake .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationown data§ enter anzûThe term anzilla appears at two other places in the Neo-Assyrian manuscripts, so it cannot be argued that anzilli is the lectio difficilior in the passage changed to anzû.
“The term anzilla features at two other points in the Neo-Assyrian manuscripts, so that no argument can be made that it is the lectio difficilior in the passage where it is amended to anzû.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ SourceS for the eagle and the SnakeThe Neo-Assyrian Etana text was fixed and existed in a single recension.
“To the best of our knowledge, the Neo-Assyrian text of Etana was fixed and existed in only one recension.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ enter anzûThere is good reason to treat the change from anzilli to anzû as a deliberate scribal emendation, since it serves a clear rhetorical purpose and creates no textual difficulty.
“There is, however, good cause to regard this change as a deliberate scribal emendation-even beyond the fact that the change serves a clear rhetorical purpose and does not create textual difficulties of any kind.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ enter anzûThe change from anzilli to anzû makes good textual sense; anzû is not accidental.
“This is all the more true because the change from anzilli to anzû makes good textual sense .Anzû is no accident .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ introductionThe two references appear in parallel contexts and have the same narrative function: to make the other less human when the eagle and snake intend harm to each other.
“These references occur in two analogous contexts and serve the same narrative purpose: to dehumanize the other when the eagle and the snake seek to do each other harm .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ enter anzûAt that point the Neo-Assyrian recension and its Old Babylonian source match closely, and the Neo-Assyrian scribe had no trouble reproducing the Old Babylonian anzillam faithfully.
“Here, the Neo-Assyrian recension and its Old Babylonian forebear mirror each other precisely, with the scribe of the former having no problem rendering the Old Babylonian anzillam with fidelity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ SourceS for the eagle and the SnakeA difference between the manuscripts is that the Neo-Assyrian recension includes references to anzû and, if the argument holds, bašmu, while the parallel Old Babylonian passages lack them.
“One of these differences is the inclusion in the Neo-Assyrian recension of references to anzû and-if the present argument is correct-to bašmu, despite their absence from the Old Babylonian manuscripts that preserve parallel passages .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The bašmu reference in the Neo-Assyrian Etana had not been recognized before this paper.
Probably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationcitation§ enter anzûOn its own, the snake's use of anzû for the eagle could be seen as a scribal miswriting of anzilli in the parallel Old Babylonian Susa line.
“By itself, the snake's use of the epithet anzû to refer to the eagle can be understood as a scribal misrepresentation of the word anzilli that features in the analogous line of the Old Babylonian Susa Tablet .25”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Saporetti 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ enter anzûThis change makes the snake identify the eagle explicitly with the anzû-bird, its mythological counterpart, rather than merely calling it an evildoer.
“This change alters the character of the snake's complaint: the snake is not merely stating that the eagle is an evildoer, but identifying the eagle explicitly with the anzû-bird, the eagle's mythological counterpart .21”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ enter anzûThe anzû is well attested in Mesopotamian myth, including an epic in which Enlil entrusts it with the tablet of destinies, but it betrays him and steals the tablet.
“The anzû is very well attested in Mesopotamian mythology, 22 including in its own epic where the bird is entrusted by the god Enlil with the task of guarding the tablet of destinies but instead betrays Enlil's trust and steals the tablet .23”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Black and Green 1992
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Wiggermann 1992
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Annus 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .bašmu also serves as the name of a divine figure, which shows its supernatural character.
“The supernatural character of bašmu is further apparent in the term's other role as the name of a divine figure.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Wiggermann 1997: 39 source
It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ much ado about -miIn KAR 6, bašmu is described as a chaos-serpent of immense proportions that consumes all living things and requires divine intervention to stop.
“bašmu is described as a chaos-serpent of immense proportions .This bašmu consumes all living things, including humans, and the gods need to intervene to stop it .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Ebeling 1916: 106-8 source
- cites Foster 2005: 579-80
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ enter anzûThe gods unite to defeat the wicked anzû, and Ninurta eventually kills it, restoring divine order.
“All of the gods come together to defeat wicked anzû, who is eventually slain by Ninurta, an act that enables the restoration of the divine order .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Annus 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ enter anzûThe use of anzû in comparisons is well attested and often shows the wickedness of the thing compared to it.
“The use of anzû in a comparative sense is likewise well attested, often demonstrating the wickedness of whatever is being likened to the anzû .24”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites CAD A/2: 154-55
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ introductionThe changes are deliberate and symmetrical, which points to a careful scribe with strong literary judgment.
“The deliberate character of these changes and their symmetry suggest that they are the product of a conscientious scribe with a developed literary sensibility .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ enter anzûThe eagle, like anzû, is a wicked creature that deserves divine punishment, which is what the snake asks of Šamaš.
“Like anzû, the eagle is a wicked creature deserving of punishment at the hands of the gods, which is precisely what the snake demands of Šamaš.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ enter anzûBy calling the eagle anzû, the snake transfers the whole mythological frame onto it and equates the eagle's evil character and monstrous acts with those of anzû.
“Accordingly, by referring to the eagle as anzû, the snake is transposing this entire mythological frame of reference onto it .This rhetorical ploy equates the eagle's bad character and monstrous deeds with those of anzû .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .The exorcist's battle against the snake reenacts the cosmic battle between order and chaos, with the exorcist as the gods and the snake as bašmu.
“The exorcist's battle against the snake thus reenacts the cosmic battle between the forces of order and those of chaos, with the exorcist starring in the role of the gods and the malicious snake in the role of the chaos-serpent bašmu .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Interpretationreasoning§ Additional informationThe symmetry of the changes suggests a conscientious scribe who commanded both narrative plotline and the rich mythological material underlying the eagle-and-snake story.
“The symmetry of the changes suggests the work of a conscientious scribe in command not only of narrative and plotline, but also of the rich mythological material on which the story of the eagle and the snake rests .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .Considered in context, the change from snake to bašmu makes sense and removes an oddity in the text.
“Considered in context, however, this change makes perfect sense and does away with an outstanding oddity in the text .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ Additional informationThe changes further suggest a scribe familiar with the timeless practice of dehumanizing the other to facilitate violence.
“It further suggests a scribe familiar with the timeless practice of dehumanizing the other to facilitate the perpetration of violence .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .The narrator's use of rū'ūšu (
“The perfidious character of this intention is highlighted directly beforehand by the narrator's use of the term rū'ūšu (”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .By calling the snake bašmu, the eagle dehumanizes it and portrays it as a monstrous other.
“By thinking of and referring to the snake as bašmu, the eagle is effectively dehumanizing it, portraying it as a monstrous other .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .This reading resolves the problem of the curious -mi and yields the eagle's statement mārī bašmi lūkulu anāku.
“This resolves the problem of the curious -mi and renders the following statement by the eagle: mārī bašmi lūkulu anāku: bašmi lìb-b[a …] I shall eat the bašmu's children: the bašmu in …”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .Using -mi as a phonetic complement in Etana would prompt the reader to recognize bašmi in the sequence MUŠ-mi.
“The use of -mi as a phonetic complement in Etana would serve to jolt the reader into recognizing the word bašmi when stumbling upon the sign sequence MUŠ-mi .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .The purpose of the structure in IM 51292 and IM 51328 is the same as in CBS 7005: identifying a harmful snake with bašmu reenacts the order-chaos battle and invokes divine forces against the snake.
“The purpose of this structure is the same as that of CBS 7005: by identifying a harmful snake with the monstrous bašmu, the incantation reenacts the battle between order and chaos and invokes the forces of the divine realm against the snake .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .The association between MUŠ and bašmu is longstanding and evident in many kinds of texts.
“As we have seen, the association between MUŠ and bašmu is longstanding and apparent in all sorts of texts .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .In KAR 6, the sign MUŠ is followed by bašmu written syllabically, so MUŠ functions as a determinative.
“In KAR 6, for instance, the sign MUŠ appears to be followed by bašmu written out syllabically, so that MUŠ functions as a determinative .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ebeling 1916: 106-8 source
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .In the incantation, an ordinary snake is called ṣēru, while a malicious snake is called bašmu.
“For the purposes of the incantation, an ordinary snake is a ṣēru, but a malicious snake is a bašmu .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .The understanding of bašmu as a distinct kind of MUŠ in ṣēru šikinšu is unmistakable.
“In any case, the understanding of bašmu as a distinct kind of MUŠ in ṣēru šikinšu is unmistakable .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .The changes are contextually sound and textually consistent.
“The changes are thus contextually sound and textually consistent .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 42. The passage reads UD-mi da-ru-ú-ti (ūmī dārûti) .Both changes are unique to the Neo-Assyrian recension and indicate a mindful pair of emendations.
“Both changes are unique to the Neo-Assyrian recension, indicating a mindful pair of emendations to the text .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
The bašmu reference in the Neo-Assyrian Etana had not been recognized before this paper.
“Although the reference to anzû has been widely noted, the reference to bašmu has been hiding in plain sight .”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
The youngest hatchling is assigned to different animals
MinorThe introduction identifies the hatchling called atar ḫasīsa as the eagle's, while its footnote identifies the hatchling bearing that epithet as the snake's.
“the description of the youngest of the eagle's hatchlings as atar ḫasīsa .3”
“The use of this epithet for the snake's youngest hatchling has escaped commentary in the major editions of the text of Etana .”
Citations
Cites
Before the Muses: An Anthology of Akkadian Literature
Foster, B. R. (1993) · Cited by 583
Speiser, E. A. (1957) · Language · doi:10.2307/411175 · Cited by 445
(1992) · Cited by 294
(1998) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 288
Lambert, W. G. (2013) · doi:10.5325/j.ctv18r6rfr · Cited by 197
Religion and Ideology in Assyria
Pongratz-Leisten, B. (2015) · doi:10.1515/9781614514268 · Cited by 196
The Babylonian Genesis: The Story of the Creation
Hyatt, J. P., & Heidel, A. (1952) · Journal of Biblical Literature · doi:10.2307/3261797 · Cited by 126
Mesopotamian Protective Spirits: The Ritual texts
Wiggerman (1992) · Cited by 108
Legends of the Kings of Akkade: The Texts
Foster, B. R., & Westenholz, J. G. (1999) · Journal of the American Oriental Society · doi:10.2307/604864 · Cited by 93
The Legend of Etana: A New Edition
Williams, J. H., & Wilson, J. V. K. (1988) · The Classical World · doi:10.2307/4350316 · Cited by 61
Principles of Akkadian Textual Criticism
Worthington, M. (2012) · De Gruyter eBooks · doi:10.1515/9781614510567 · Cited by 46
“They Enjoy Syrup and Ghee at Tables of Silver and Gold”: Infant Loss in Ancient Mesopotamia
de Valk, J. P. J. (2016) · Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient · doi:10.1163/15685209-12341412 · Cited by 25
Self-citationOn Some Dog, Snake and Scorpion Incantations
Finkel, I. L. (2000) · Mesopotamian Magic: Textual, Historical and Interpretative Perspectives · doi:10.1163/9789004496293_017 · Cited by 15
Wiggermann, F. A. M. (1997) · Sumerian Gods and their Representations · doi:10.1163/9789004676572_006 · Cited by 14
Legends of Babylon and Egypt in Relation to Hebrew Tradition
P., E. A., & King, L. W. (1919) · Geographical Journal · doi:10.2307/1780404 · Cited by 13
Most Probably: Epistemic Modality in Old Babylonian
Wasserman, N. (2011) · Penn State University Press eBooks · doi:10.1515/9781575066646 · Cited by 9
Ein Fragment aus dem Mythos von der grossen Schlange.
Ebeling, E. (1916) · Orientalistische Literaturzeitung · doi:10.1524/olzg.1916.19.16.59c · Cited by 3
A New Fragment of the Babylonian Etana Legend
Jastrow, M. J. (2010) · Gorgias Press eBooks · doi:10.31826/9781463216122-001 · Cited by 1
Narām-Sîn of Ešnunna or Akkad?
Lambert, W. G. (1986) · Journal of the American Oriental Society · doi:10.2307/603538
Joan Goodnick Westenholz. Legends of the Kings of Akkade: The Texts.
Charpin, D. (1999) · Journal of Cuneiform Studies · doi:10.2307/1359735
Most Probably: Epistemic Modality in Old Babylonian
Wasserman, N. (2012) · doi:10.5325/j.ctv1bxgzbh
Birds, Balaĝs, and Snakes (K.4206+)
Mirelman, S. (2015) · Journal of Cuneiform Studies · doi:10.5615/jcunestud.67.2015.0169
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- Cohen, Eran . 2014 . Epistemic Modality in Old Babylonian . Review of Nathan Wasserman, Most Prob- ably: Epistemic Modality in Old Babylonian . JAOS 134: 123-36 .
- Dalley, Stephanie . 1989 . Myths from Mesopotamia . Oxford: Oxford Univ . Press .
- Landsberger, Benno . 1962 . The Fauna of Ancient Mesopotamia. Second Part. ḪAR-ra = ḫubullu Tab- lets XIV and XVIII. Materialen zum Sumerischen Lexikon, vol. 8.2. Rome: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum .
- ---. 2017. Review of Nathan Wasserman, Most Probably: Epistemic Modality in Old Babylonian . JNES 76: 361-63 .
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Majchrzak, D., & Esposti, M. D. (2022) · Arabian archaeology and epigraphy · doi:10.1111/aae.12212 · Cited by 2
Manlaharban and Aramaic in the Neo-Assyrian Oracular Queries Written by Women
Valk, J., & Svärd, S. (2025) · Revue d assyriologie et d archéologie orientale · doi:10.3917/assy.118.0135
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Valk, J.
- Venue
- Journal of the American Oriental Society
- Publisher
- American Oriental Society
- Published
- 2021-09-19
- Volume
- 140
- Issue
- 4
- ISSN
- 0003-0279 (ISSN-L)
- 2169-2289
- OpenAlex
- W3111458793
- Cited by
- 2
- References
- 18
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1 · 2022: 1
- FWCI
- 1.11
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of the American Oriental Society (publishedVersion)
- Leiden Repository (Leiden University) (submittedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Knowledge Commons (Lakehead University)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Ancient Near East History
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Religious studies › Biblical Studies and Interpretation
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Literature and Literary Theory › Folklore, Mythology, and Literature Studies
- Keywords
- textual emendation, mythological allusion
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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