Prevalence of and Risk Factors for Diabetic Macular Edema in the United States
Open accessAbstract
IMPORTANCE: Diabetic macular edema (DME) is a leading cause of vision loss in persons with diabetes mellitus. Although there are national estimates for the prevalence of diabetic retinopathy and its risk factors among persons with diabetes, to our knowledge, no comparable estimates are available for DME specifically. OBJECTIVES: To estimate the prevalence of DME in the US population and to identify associated risk factors. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: A cross-sectional analysis of 1038 participants aged 40 years or older with diabetes and valid fundus photographs in the 2005 to 2008 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: The overall prevalence of DME and its prevalence according to age, race/ethnicity, and sex. RESULTS: Of the 1038 persons with diabetes analyzed for this study, 55 had DME, for an overall weighted prevalence of 3.8% (95% CI, 2.7%-4.9%) or approximately 746, 000 persons in the US 2010 population aged 40 years or older. We identified no differences in the prevalence of DME by age or sex. Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that the odds of having DME were higher for non-Hispanic blacks than for non-Hispanic whites (odds ratio [OR], 2.64; 95% CI, 1.19-5.84; P = .02). Elevated levels of glycosylated hemoglobin A1c (OR, 1.47; 95% CI, 1.26-1.71 for each 1%; P < .001) and longer duration of diabetes (OR, 8.51; 95% CI, 3.70-19.54 for ≥ 10 vs <10 years; P < .001) were also associated with DME prevalence. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: These results suggest a greater burden of DME among non-Hispanic blacks, individuals with high levels of hemoglobin A1c, and those with longer duration of diabetes. Given recent treatment advances in reducing vision loss and preserving vision in persons with DME, it is imperative that all persons with diabetes receive early screening; this recommendation is even more important for those at higher risk for DME.
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African-American patients are three times more likely to present with diabetic macular edema (DME) as compared to non-Hispanic Whites.
“For example, African-American patients are three times more likely to present with diabetic macular edema (DME), 1.6 times more likely to present with vision-threatening diabetic retinopathy, and 4 times more likely to present with vision loss as compared to non-Hispanic Whites9–12.”
From Autonomous AI-assisted diabetic retinopathy screening at primary care is associated with increased presentation to eye care by at risk patients (2026) · cites this paper as [10]
African-American patients are 1.6 times more likely to present with vision-threatening diabetic retinopathy as compared to non-Hispanic Whites.
“For example, African-American patients are three times more likely to present with diabetic macular edema (DME), 1.6 times more likely to present with vision-threatening diabetic retinopathy, and 4 times more likely to present with vision loss as compared to non-Hispanic Whites9–12.”
From Autonomous AI-assisted diabetic retinopathy screening at primary care is associated with increased presentation to eye care by at risk patients (2026) · cites this paper as [10]
The Results report higher odds of diabetic macular edema among non-Hispanic black participants than non-Hispanic white participants (OR 2.64). Our copy does not report a 1.6-fold comparison for vision-threatening diabetic retinopathy; searches for that term and racial comparison found no supporting passage. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAfrican-American patients are 4 times more likely to present with vision loss as compared to non-Hispanic Whites.
“For example, African-American patients are three times more likely to present with diabetic macular edema (DME), 1.6 times more likely to present with vision-threatening diabetic retinopathy, and 4 times more likely to present with vision loss as compared to non-Hispanic Whites9–12.”
From Autonomous AI-assisted diabetic retinopathy screening at primary care is associated with increased presentation to eye care by at risk patients (2026) · cites this paper as [10]
The Results report higher odds of diabetic macular edema among non-Hispanic blacks than non-Hispanic whites (OR 2.64), not a fourfold difference in vision loss. The Conclusion and Comment mention vision loss as a possible consequence of DME but provide no racial comparison for that outcome (pages not provided). (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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- [14]Regeneron Pharmaceuticals Inc Regeneron and Bayer report positive one-year results from two phase 3 trials of EYLEA® (aflibercept) injection for the treatment of diabetic macular edema [press release] 2013 8 6 Regeneron Pharmaceuticals Inc Accessed October 8, 2013 website. http://investor.regeneron.com/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=782911.
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“edema (DME), the most frequent sight-threatening disorder in individuals with DR [1].”
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Management of diabetic macular edema in Japan: a review and expert opinion
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Racial disparities in the screening and treatment of diabetic retinopathy
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“In recent years, a variety of microRNAs (miR-409-3p, miR-98-5p, miR-16-5p, etc.) have been proved to participate in DM progression and its complications (Duan et al., 2019; Khan et al., 2019; Ventriglia et al., 2019).”
BackgroundThe efficacy and safety of aflibercept and conbercept in diabetic macular edema
Cai, S., Yang, Q., Li, X., & Zhang, Y. (2018) · Drug Design Development and Therapy · doi:10.2147/dddt.s177192 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Up to date, there is no clinical trial comparing the therapeutic efficacy of conbercept with laser in the treat-ment of DME.”
InfluentialDiabetic Macular Edema and Diode Subthreshold Micropulse Laser
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Indocyanine green angiography for identifying telangiectatic capillaries in diabetic macular oedema
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“These criteria comprise (1) thickening of the retina within 500 μm of the center of the macula; or (2) hard exudates (HEs) at or within 500 μm of the center of the macula associated with thickening of adjacent retina; or (3) a zone of”
BackgroundRevolution to a New Standard Treatment of Diabetic Macular Edema
Jampol, L. M., Bressler, N. M., & Glassman, A. R. (2014) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2014.2536 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
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“DR is another complication that is the leading cause of vision loss [15].”
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New Insights in Resistant Diabetic Macular Edema
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“Among the visually disabling conditions in patients with diabetic eye disease, diabetic macular edema (DME), left untreated, is a common cause of vision loss [9].”
BackgroundChoi, M. Y., Jee, D., & Kwon, J. W. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0222364 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Recent clinically relevant highlights from the Diabetic Retinopathy Clinical Research Network
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“Ac-tually, DR is often accompanied by diabetic macular edema (DME), a common complication of DR, which is the most common cause of visual loss in both proliferative and non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy [4].”
BackgroundRegillo, C. D., Callanan, D., Diana, V., Fine, H. F., Holekamp, N. M., Kuppermann, B. D., Singer, M. A., & Singh, R. P. (2017) · Ophthalmic surgery, lasers & imaging retina · doi:10.3928/23258160-20170329-03 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Relationship between diabetic macular edema and choroidal layer thickness
Endo, H., Kase, S., Takahashi, M., Saito, M., Yokoi, M., Sugawara, C., Katsuta, S., Ishida, S., & Kase, M. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0226630 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Large-scale epidemiological studies indicated that elevated HbA1c increased the risk of the onset of DME [31,32].”
BackgroundBek, T. (2020) · Diabetologia · doi:10.1007/s00125-020-05234-0 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Yoshizumi, H., Ejima, T., Nagao, T., & Wakisaka, M. (2018) · American Journal of Case Reports · doi:10.12659/ajcr.909708 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“It is estimated there are about 746 000 patients suffering from DME in the US population aged 40 years or older in 2010 [23].”
BackgroundTherapeutic Options in Refractory Diabetic Macular Oedema
Shah, S. U., & Maturi, R. K. (2017) · Drugs · doi:10.1007/s40265-017-0704-6 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“It is the leading cause of new blindness in patients under 65 years of age [22].”
BackgroundDiabetic and Retinal Vascular Eye Disease
Le, H.-G., & Shakoor, A. (2021) · Medical Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.mcna.2021.02.004 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
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Disparities in Eye Care Utilization During the COVID-19 Pandemic
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“The risk factors include not only the duration of diabetes but also the presence of systemic conditions, such as hyperglycemia and hypertension [7].”
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A Classification System for Diabetic Patients with Machine Learning Techniques
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“The report of International Diabetes Federation (IDF) (2013), reveals that approximately 50% diabetes infected world populations resides in only three countries: China (98.4 million), India (65.1 million) and the USA (24.4 million) (Varma et al .”
BackgroundInfluentialBastos-Carvalho, A., Ware, S. L., Lei, F., Bush, H., Sprang, R., & Higgins, E. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0241767 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Functional outcome of macular edema in different retinal disorders
Tomkins‐Netzer, O., Ismetova, F., Bar, A., Seguin‐Greenstein, S., Kramer, M., & Lightman, S. (2015) · Progress in Retinal and Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.05.002 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“The estimated prevalence of DME among diabetic patients over the age 40 in the United States is 3.8%, with the lowest Please cite this article in press as: Tomkins-Netzer, O., et al., Functional o Retinal and Eye Research (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.preteyeres.20 rates among the non-hispanic white population a…”
BackgroundInfluentialNew Therapeutic Approaches in Diabetic Retinopathy
Vaziri, K., Schwartz, S. G., Relhan, N., Kishor, K. S., & Flynn, H. W. (2015) · The Review of Diabetic Studies · doi:10.1900/rds.2015.12.196 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Numerous risk factors have been associated with diabetic retinopathy, including duration of diabetes, high HbA1c levels (chronic hyperglycemia), hypertension, and ethnicity [3, 8-12].”
BackgroundReversing the tide — diagnosis and prevention of T2DM in populations of African descent
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Penman, A. D., Hoadley, S., Wilson, J. G., Taylor, H. A., Chen, C. J., & Sobrin, L. (2015) · American Journal of Ophthalmology · doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2015.03.008 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Trends in the Care of Diabetic Macular Edema: Analysis of a National Cohort
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Azrak, C., Palazón‐Bru, A., Diaz, M. V. B., la Rosa, D. M. F.-D., Hernández-Martínez, C., Martínez-Toldos, J. J., & Gil-Guillén, V. F. (2015) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.1404 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Lundeen, E. A., Kim, M., Rein, D. B., Wittenborn, J. S., SAADDINE, J. B., Ehrlich, J. R., & Holliday, C. S. (2023) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc22-1834 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
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“DME causes a severe vision disturbance and is a major cause of the blindness associated with the increasing prevalence of diabetes around the world [1,2].”
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“Diabetic macular edema (DME) is the most common sight-threatening complication of diabetes afflicting working-age adults [1,2].”
BackgroundFundus fluorescence Angiography in diagnosing diabetic retinopathy
Wang, S., Zuo, Y., Wang, N., & Tong, B. (2017) · Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences · doi:10.12669/pjms.336.13405 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Appointment Compliance in Patients With Diabetic Macular Edema and Exudative Macular Degeneration
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Triamcinolone Acetonide-Loaded PEGylated Microemulsion for the Posterior Segment of Eye
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Anti-VEGF therapy prevents Müller intracellular edema by decreasing VEGF-A in diabetic retinopathy
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Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Disparities in Diabetic Macular Edema Clinical Trials
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Aflibercept in the Treatment of Diabetic Macular Edema: A Review and Consensus Paper
Avitabile, T., Azzolini, C., Bandello, F. M., Boscia, F., Falco, S. D., Fornasari, D., Lanzetta, P., Mastropasqua, L., Midena, E., Ricci, F., et al. (2017) · European Journal of Ophthalmology · doi:10.5301/ejo.5001053 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Varma et al (3) reported that in the US population the overall weighted prevalence of DME among persons with diabetes mellitus aged ≥40 years is 3.”
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“In a study carried out in the USA by Varma et al. (2014), a cross-sectional analysis of 1038 individuals with diabetes participating in the 2005 to 2008 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey showed an overall weighted prevalence of 3.8% for DME, with higher rates amongst non-Hispanic…”
BackgroundInfluential
- Authors
- Varma, R., Bressler, N. M., Doan, Q. V., Gleeson, M., Danese, M., Bower, J. K., Selvin, E., Dolan, C., Fine, J., Colman, S., & Turpcu, A.
- Affiliations
- University of Southern California (US)
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- Outcomes Insights, Inc, Westlake Village, California
- The Ohio State University (US)
- Genentech (US)
- Corresponding author
- Varma, Rohit
- ORCID
- Venue
- JAMA Ophthalmology
- Publisher
- American Medical Association (AMA)
- Published
- 2014-11-01
- Volume
- 132
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 1334
- ISSN
- 2168-6165 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4576994
- OpenAlex
- W2075206985
- Cited by
- 423
- References
- 38
- Citations by year
- 2026: 26 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 38 · 2023: 38 · 2022: 62 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 42 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 32 · 2015: 30 · 2014: 2 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 29.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- JAMA Ophthalmology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (T32HL007024)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Ophthalmology › Retinal Diseases and Treatments
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Retinal Imaging and Analysis
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes Management and Research
- Keywords
- diabetic macular edema, prevalence, risk factors, diabetes mellitus, racial disparities, non-Hispanic blacks, HbA1c, diabetes duration, vision loss, diabetic retinopathy, vision screening
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Blood Glucose, Cross-Sectional Studies, Diabetic Retinopathy, Ethnicity, Female, Health Surveys, Glycated Hemoglobin, Humans, Macular Edema, Male, Middle Aged, Nutrition Surveys, Risk Factors, United States, Prevalence, Age Distribution, Sex Distribution
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