Toward the engineering of minimal living cells
Open accessAbstract
The article focuses on the notion of a synthetic or semi‐synthetic minimal cell, defined as a system that has the minimal and sufficient structural conditions for cellular life. It is emphasized that two complementary approaches are in principle possible, defined as “bottom‐up” and “top‐down” approaches. The first one aims at the construction of a minimal cell starting from scratch, and it is argued that a very serious bottle‐neck to this pathway lies in the origination of specific macro‐molecular sequences, as in nature those were constructed most likely by a particular contingent set of conditions. The top‐down approaches utilize extant genes and enzymes, and the work in this case is based on the incorporation of the minimal and sufficient amount of such macromolecules into liposomes, as models for the shell of biological cells. The first phase of this ambitious project foresees the study of conditions under which complex molecular biology reactions takes place in the compartments of liposomes. Examples of these reactions are provided, for example, the production of RNA throughout Q‐beta replicase in a self‐reproducing vesicle system; or PC Reaction in phospholipid vesicles; or even the incorporation of ribosomes in liposomes, with the production of polypeptide chains. The use of giant vesicles is also illustrated. These systems, due to their large size, offer the advantage that by way of special micro‐injection techniques, all sort of biochemical agents can be directly introduced in the compartment; and that the reaction can be followed by optical microscopy. In the final part of the article, the outlook of increasing the complexity of these liposome systems so as to arrive at first semi‐synthetic cells is discussed. Anat Rec 268:208–214, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Chemical networks in the form of cell-like systems or synthetic cells offer a novel pathway for exploring wetware systems, operating on a chemically embodied AI (WNAI) that more accurately models minimal life and minimal cognition.
“The core idea is that chemical networks, specifically in the form of cell-like systems or “synthetic cells” (“artificial cells”, “protocells”) (Oberholzer et al., 1995; Luisi, 2002), offer a novel pathway for exploring wetware systems, operating on a peculiar form of chemically embodied AI (the WNAI one), that more accurately model minimal life and minimal cognition”
From Wetware network-based AI: a chemical approach to embodied cognition for robotics and artificial intelligence (2026) · cites this paper as Luisi, 2002
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
A Production of Amino Acids Under Possible Primitive Earth Conditions
Miller, S. L. (1953) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.117.3046.528 · Cited by 3,522 · see citing works
Szostak, J. W., Bartel, D. P., & Luisi, P. L. (2001) · Nature · doi:10.1038/35053176 · Cited by 1,681 · see citing works
Self-citationAutocatalytic self-replicating micelles as models for prebiotic structures
Bachmann, P. A., Luisi, P. L., & Lang, J. (1992) · Nature · doi:10.1038/357057a0 · Cited by 494 · see citing works
Self-citationAutopoietic self-reproduction of fatty-acid vesicles
Walde, P., Wick, R., Fresta, M., Mangone, A., & Luisi, P. L. (1994) · Journal of the American Chemical Society · doi:10.1021/ja00105a004 · Cited by 444 · see citing works
Self-citationArtificial cells: prospects for biotechnology
Pohorille, A., & Deamer, D. W. (2002) · Trends in biotechnology · doi:10.1016/s0167-7799(02)01909-1 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
About Various Definitions of Life
Luisi, P. L. (1998) · Origins of life and evolution of the biosphere · doi:10.1023/a:1006517315105 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
Self-citationEnzymatic RNA replication in self-reproducing vesicles: an approach to a minimal cell
Oberholzer, T., Wick, R., Luisi, P. L., & Biebricher, C. K. (1995) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1006/bbrc.1995.1180 · Cited by 259 · see citing works
Self-citationSelf-assembling amphiphilic molecules: Synthesis in simulated interstellar/precometary ices
Dworkin, J. P., Deamer, D. W., Sandford, S. A., & Allamandola, L. J. (2001) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.98.3.815 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Walde, P., Goto, A., Monnard, P., Wessicken, M., & Luisi, P. L. (1994) · Journal of the American Chemical Society · doi:10.1021/ja00096a010 · Cited by 237 · see citing works
Self-citationPolymerase chain reaction in liposomes
Oberholzer, T., Albrizio, M., & Luisi, P. L. (1995) · Chemistry & Biology · doi:10.1016/1074-5521(95)90031-4 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Self-citationSynthesis of Functional Protein in Liposome
Yu, W., Sato, K., Wakabayashi, M., Nakaishi, T., Ko-Mitamura, E. P., Shima, Y., Urabe, I., & Yomo, T. (2001) · Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering · doi:10.1016/s1389-1723(01)80322-4 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
Production of RNA by a polymerase protein encapsulated within phospholipid vesicles
Chakrabarti, A. C., Breaker, R. R., Joyce, G. F., & Deamer, D. W. (1994) · Journal of Molecular Evolution · doi:10.1007/bf00160400 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Protein Expression in Liposomes
Oberholzer, T., Nierhaus, K. H., & Luisi, P. L. (1999) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1006/bbrc.1999.0404 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Self-citationBerclaz, N., Müller, M., Walde, P., & Luisi, P. L. (2000) · The Journal of Physical Chemistry B · doi:10.1021/jp001298i · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Self-citationMatrix Effect of Vesicle Formation As Investigated by Cryotransmission Electron Microscopy
Berclaz, N., Blöchliger, E., Müller, M., & Luisi, P. L. (2001) · The Journal of Physical Chemistry B · doi:10.1021/jp002151u · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Self-citationLuisi, P. L., Oberholzer, T., & Lazcano, A. (2002) · Helvetica Chimica Acta · doi:10.1002/1522-2675(200206)85:6 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Self-citationZepik (2001) · doi:10.1002/1521-3773(20010105)40:1
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 18 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- Joyce G, Orgel L. 1999. In: Gesteland RF, Cech TR, Atkins JE, editors. The RNA world. Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
- Luisi PL, Oberholzer T. 2002. Proceedings of the 4th BPC, Kyoto, 2001 (in press).
- Luisi PL. 2002. Foundations of chemistry (in press).
- Walde P, Luisi PL, editors. 2000. Giant vesicles. Cambridge: Cam- bridge University Press.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
A vesicle bioreactor as a step toward an artificial cell assembly
Noireaux, V., & Libchaber, A. (2004) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0408236101 · Cited by 1,152 · see citing works
The Systems View of Life: A Unifying Vision
Capra, F., & Luisi, P. L. (2014) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511895555 · Cited by 1,347 · see citing works
Self-citationNanotechnology: convergence with modern biology and medicine
Roco, M. C. (2003) · Current Opinion in Biotechnology · doi:10.1016/s0958-1669(03)00068-5 · Cited by 764 · see citing works
“Creating larger molecular structures [19 ], structure replication [38], neuromorphic engineering [39], mimicking photosynthesis [40,41], and the development of bioreceptors and biomarkers, are further examples of creating artificial nanoscale devices and semibiological hybrids using biological paradigms.”
BackgroundGene-Expressing Liposomes as Synthetic Cells for Molecular Communication Studies
Rampioni, G., D’Angelo, F., Leoni, L., & Stano, P. (2019) · Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology · doi:10.3389/fbioe.2019.00001 · Cited by 450 · see citing works
“SCs based on gene expression inside liposomes find their origin in early studies on cell models aiming at achieving minimal lifelike behaviors (Morowitz et al., 1988; Luisi and Varela, 1989; Schmidli et al., 1991; Oberholzer et al., 1995a,b, 1999; Szostak et al., 2001; Luisi, 2002; Pohorille and Deamer, 2002; Mansy an…”
BackgroundInfluentialTowards synthesis of a minimal cell
Forster, A. C., & Church, G. M. (2006) · Molecular Systems Biology · doi:10.1038/msb4100090 · Cited by 437 · see citing works
Approaches to semi-synthetic minimal cells: a review
Luisi, P. L., Ferri, F., & Stano, P. (2005) · Die Naturwissenschaften · doi:10.1007/s00114-005-0056-z · Cited by 406 · see citing works
“More recently, reviews by Pohorille and Deamer [50], Luisi [ 28 ] and Oberholzer and Luisi [42] have sharpened the question and have brought it to the perspective of modern molecular tools.”
BackgroundSelf-citationSelf-replication of DNA by its encoded proteins in liposome-based synthetic cells
van Nies, P., Westerlaken, I., Blanken, D., Salas, M., Mencı́a, M., & Danelon, C. (2018) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-018-03926-1 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
Achievements and open questions in the self-reproduction of vesicles and synthetic minimal cells
Stano, P., & Luisi, P. L. (2010) · Chemical Communications · doi:10.1039/b913997d · Cited by 220 · see citing works
Self-citationBasic Autonomy as a Fundamental Step in the Synthesis of Life
Ruiz‐Mirazo, K., & Moreno, Á. (2004) · Artificial Life · doi:10.1162/1064546041255584 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Knowledge‐making distinctions in synthetic biology
O’Malley, M. A., Powell, A. M., Davies, J. F., & Calvert, J. E. (2007) · BioEssays · doi:10.1002/bies.20664 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
“The protocell school emphasizes the capacity of cell components to self-assemble and self-organize, and much of its research focuses on properties related to the fluidity of the cellular environment.((52,70)) For these reasons, the possibilities for complex dynamics and emergent phenomena tend to be seen as topics for…”
BackgroundSynthetic biology projects in vitroPreprint
Forster, A. C., & Church, G. M. (2006) · Genome Research · doi:10.1101/gr.5776007 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
“But membrane replication is poorly understood and difficult to control (Luisi 2002; Gitai 2005).”
Protein synthesis in liposomes with a minimal set of enzymes
Murtas, G., Kuruma, Y., Bianchini, P., Diaspro, A., & Luisi, P. L. (2007) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.07.201 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Self-citationBIOMIMETIC NANOSCALE REACTORS AND NETWORKS
Karlsson, M., Davidson, M., Karlsson, R., Karlsson, A., Bergenholtz, J., Konkoli, Z., Jesorka, A., Lobovkina, T., Hurtig, J., Voinova, M. V., et al. (2004) · Annual Review of Physical Chemistry · doi:10.1146/annurev.physchem.55.091602.094319 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Genetically controlled membrane synthesis in liposomes
Blanken, D., Foschepoth, D., Serrão, A. C., & Danelon, C. (2020) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-020-17863-5 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
“Therefore, phospholipid 7 vesicles provide a chassis for the construction of synthetic minimal cells representing comparatively 8 simple model systems [1-3].”
Backgroundde Souza, T. P., Stano, P., & Luisi, P. L. (2009) · ChemBioChem · doi:10.1002/cbic.200800810 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Self-citationSurfactant Assemblies and their Various Possible Roles for the Origin(S) of Life
Walde, P. (2006) · Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres · doi:10.1007/s11084-005-9004-3 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Stano, P., Carrara, P., Kuruma, Y., de Souza, T. P., & Luisi, P. L. (2011) · Journal of Materials Chemistry · doi:10.1039/c1jm12298c · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Self-citationCell-Free Phospholipid Biosynthesis by Gene-Encoded Enzymes Reconstituted in Liposomes
Scott, A., Noga, M., Graaf, P. D. D., Westerlaken, I., Yildirim, E., & Danelon, C. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0163058 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“Several laboratories are now attempting to construct a minimal, albeit sufficient, cell starting from purified components derived from existing organisms [1–6].”
Vesicles-on-a-chip: A universal microfluidic platform for the assembly of liposomes and polymersomes
Petit, J., Polenz, I., Baret, J., Herminghaus, S., & Bäumchen, O. (2016) · The European Physical Journal E · doi:10.1140/epje/i2016-16059-8 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Cell‐free translation systems for protein engineering
Shimizu, Y., Kuruma, Y., Ying, B., Umekage, S., & Ueda, T. (2006) · FEBS Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1742-4658.2006.05431.x · Cited by 107 · see citing works
“The goal of the new and rapidly developing field of synthetic biology is the development of a minimal cell, also called an artificial cell [ 23 ].”
BackgroundRosemeyer, H. (2005) · Chemistry & Biodiversity · doi:10.1002/cbdv.200590082 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Designing biological systems: Systems Engineering meets Synthetic Biology
Rollié, S., Mangold, M., & Sundmacher, K. (2011) · Chemical Engineering Science · doi:10.1016/j.ces.2011.10.068 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Chemical Aspects of Synthetic Biology
Luisi, P. L. (2007) · Chemistry & Biodiversity · doi:10.1002/cbdv.200790053 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Self-citationSynthetic cells and organelles: compartmentalization strategies
Roodbeen, R., & van Hest, J. C. M. (2009) · BioEssays · doi:10.1002/bies.200900106 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Growing Membranes In Vitro by Continuous Phospholipid Biosynthesis from Free Fatty Acids
Exterkate, M., Caforio, A., Stuart, M. C. A., & Driessen, A. J. M. (2017) · ACS Synthetic Biology · doi:10.1021/acssynbio.7b00265 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Altamura, E., Albanese, P., Marotta, R., Milano, F., Fiore, M., Trotta, M., Stano, P., & Mavelli, F. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2012170118 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
López-Madrigal, S., Latorre, A., Porcar, M., Moyá, A., & Gil, R. (2011) · Journal of Bacteriology · doi:10.1128/jb.05749-11 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
“Considering life the emerging property of a system that simultaneously displays homeostasis, self-reproduction, and evolution (6), “Ca.”
BackgroundCape, J. L., Monnard, P., & Boncella, J. M. (2011) · Chemical Science · doi:10.1039/c0sc00575d · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Is Research on “Synthetic Cells” Moving to the Next Level?
Stano, P. (2018) · Life · doi:10.3390/life9010003 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“The focus on this approach (the “semi-synthetic” approach [1,6,9]) firstly derives from our involvement in this research, but also considering the great potential of such constructions for basic and applied science.”
BackgroundLectin-mediated protocell crosslinking to mimic cell-cell junctions and adhesion
Villringer, S., Madl, J., Sych, T., Manner, C., Imberty, A., & Römer, W. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-20230-6 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Programmed Vesicle Fusion Triggers Gene Expression
Caschera, F., Sunami, T., Matsuura, T., Suzuki, H., Hanczyc, M. M., & Yomo, T. (2011) · Langmuir · doi:10.1021/la202648h · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Gene Expression Inside Liposomes: From Early Studies to Current Protocols
Stano, P. (2019) · Chemistry - A European Journal · doi:10.1002/chem.201806445 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
The Nature of Life: Classical and Contemporary Perspectives from Philosophy and Science
Bedau, M. A., & Cleland, C. E. (2010) · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Receptor–receptor interactions: A novel concept in brain integration
Agnati, L. F., Guidolin, D., Leo, G., Carone, C., Genedani, S., & Fuxé, K. (2009) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2009.10.004 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Systems biology perspectives on minimal and simpler cells
Xavier, J. C., Patil, K. R., & Rocha, I. (2014) · Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews · doi:10.1128/mmbr.00050-13 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Importance of Parasite RNA Species Repression for Prolonged Translation-Coupled RNA Self-Replication
Bansho, Y., Ichihashi, N., Kazuta, Y., Matsuura, T., Suzuki, H., & Yomo, T. (2012) · Chemistry & Biology · doi:10.1016/j.chembiol.2012.01.019 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“To date, various schemes for the construction of artificial cell models have been proposed (Deamer, 2005; Forster and Church, 2006; Jewett and Forster, 2010; Luisi, 2002; Noireaux et al., 2011; Pohorille and Deamer, 2002; Stano, 2011; Szostak et al., 2001), but the importance of parasite repression has not been fully…”
BackgroundSemi-synthetic minimal cells as a tool for biochemical ICT
Stano, P., Rampioni, G., Carrara, P., Damiano, L., Leoni, L., & Luisi, P. L. (2012) · Biosystems · doi:10.1016/j.biosystems.2012.01.002 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Self-citationSocial and ethical checkpoints for bottom-up synthetic biology, or protocells
Bedau, M. A., Parke, E. C., Tangen, U., & Hantsche-Tangen, B. (2009) · Systems and Synthetic Biology · doi:10.1007/s11693-009-9039-2 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“At best Footnote 1 continued prebiotic conditions (Luisi 2002) (2) the distinction between in vivo and in vitro synthetic biology (European Commission 2005) (3) the distinction between learning about biological systems by traditional analytical decomposition of natural systems vs.”
BackgroundNative silica nanoparticles are powerful membrane disruptors
Alkhammash, H. I., Li, N., Berthier, R., & de Planque, M. R. R. (2015) · Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics · doi:10.1039/c4cp05882h · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Quantification of structural properties of cell-sized individual liposomes by flow cytometry
Sato, K., Obinata, K., Sugawara, T., Urabe, I., & Yomo, T. (2006) · Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering · doi:10.1263/jbb.102.171 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Downward causation by information control in micro-organisms
Jaeger, L., & Calkins, E. R. (2011) · Interface Focus · doi:10.1098/rsfs.2011.0045 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Unpackaging synthetic biology: Identification of oversight policy problems and options
Kuzma, J., & Tanji, T. (2010) · Regulation & Governance · doi:10.1111/j.1748-5991.2010.01071.x · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“The starting point for this is the self-sustaining minimal cell (Luisi 2002; Gibson et al. 2008; Nature News 2008).”
BackgroundA controllable gene expression system in liposomes that includes a positive feedback loop
Kobori, S., Ichihashi, N., Kazuta, Y., & Yomo, T. (2013) · Molecular BioSystems · doi:10.1039/c3mb70032a · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Structural analyses of a hypothetical minimal metabolism
Gabaldón, T., Peretó, J. G., Montero, F., Gil, R., Latorre, A., & Moyá, A. (2007) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2067 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“Nowadays, while working on the development of the appropriate technology for actually ‘synthesizing life’, scientists are trying to design artificial minimal life forms in two opposite but complementary ways, defined as the bottom-up and the top-down approaches (Luisi 2002; Szathmáry 2005).”
BackgroundBioinspired Networks of Communicating Synthetic Protocells
Grimes, P. J., Galanti, A., & Gobbo, P. (2021) · Frontiers in Molecular Biosciences · doi:10.3389/fmolb.2021.804717 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“The result of this body of research, which is based on an assortment of fundamental early works (Szostak et al., 2001; Luisi, 2002; Pohorille and Deamer, 2002; Noireaux and Libchaber, 2004; Swi Chang, 2007), is a broad array of different cellular mimics, ranging from liposomes (Rideau et al., 2018)…”
BackgroundAdvancing synthetic biology through cell-free protein synthesis
Yue, K., Chen, J., Li, Y., & Kai, L. (2023) · Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal · doi:10.1016/j.csbj.2023.05.003 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Such a system can possess certain essential characteristics of a living cell or carry out certain basic activities [30,31].”
BackgroundGentili, P. L. (2024) · Biomimetics · doi:10.3390/biomimetics9020121 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Altamura, E., Carrara, P., D’Angelo, F., Mavelli, F., & Stano, P. (2018) · Synthetic Biology · doi:10.1093/synbio/ysy011 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
The Conception of Life in Synthetic Biology
Deplazes‐Zemp, A. (2011) · Science and Engineering Ethics · doi:10.1007/s11948-011-9269-z · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“The minimal cell may give an account of how life started by the concentration of chemical molecules in lipid vesicles (Luisi 2002, 2006, pp. 3–4).”
BackgroundThe Capabilities of Chaos and Complexity
Abel, D. L. (2009) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms10010247 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Many papers actually acknowledge up front the role of “engineering,” sometimes right in their titles [272-279] (e.”
BackgroundSteps Towards the Formation of A Protocell: The Possible Role of Short Peptides
Fishkis, M. (2007) · Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres · doi:10.1007/s11084-007-9111-4 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“Protocell Organization and Function Although definitions of protocells vary (Pohorille and Deamer 2002; Luisi 2002; Oberholzer and Luisi 2002), we use the most widely accepted one, that the protocell is a local molecular assembly that continuously regenerates itself, replicates itself, and is…”
BackgroundCharacterization of the emergent properties of a synthetic quasi-cellular system
Ospri, L. L., Stano, P., Luisi, P. L., & Marangoni, R. (2012) · BMC Bioinformatics · doi:10.1186/1471-2105-13-s4-s9 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“The final goal of this approach is the intraliposomal expression of enzymes that ultimately catalyze the regeneration of all internalized and membrane-forming components, so that a coordinated “core-and-shell” self-reproduction can be achieved [4,23].”
BackgroundSelf-citationEgan, M., Kuşcu, M., Barros, M. T., Booth, M. J., Llopis‐Lorente, A., Magarini, M., Martins, D. P., Schäfer, M., & Stano, P. (2023) · Life · doi:10.3390/life13010208 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Construction of a minimal genome as a chassis for synthetic biology.
Sung, B., Choe, D., Kim, S. C., & Cho, B.-K. (2016) · Essays in Biochemistry · doi:10.1042/ebc20160024 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Phenotypic diversity and chaos in a minimal cell model
Munteanu, A., & Solé, R. V. (2005) · Journal of Theoretical Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2005.10.013 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Experimentally, the moment of the synthesis of an artificial nanocell based on this theory seems to be closer than ever (Bartel and Unrau, 1999; Szostak et al., 2001; Luisi, 2002; Pohorille and Deamer, 2002; Rasmussen et al., 2004).”
Walde, P., & Ichikawa, S. (2021) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app112110345 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Synthetic Minimal Cell: Self-Reproduction of the Boundary Layer
Exterkate, M., & Driessen, A. J. M. (2019) · ACS Omega · doi:10.1021/acsomega.8b02955 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Shuler, M. L., Foley, P., & Atlas, J. (2012) · Methods in molecular biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-61779-827-6_20 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Kubilis, A., Abdulkarim, A., Eissa, A. M., & Cameron, N. R. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep32414 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Chemical neural networks inside synthetic cells? A proposal for their realization and modeling
Gentili, P. L., & Stano, P. (2022) · Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology · doi:10.3389/fbioe.2022.927110 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“In particular, we will focus on bottom-up approaches and on the socalled synthetic (or artificial) cells (SCs or ACs) (Luisi 2002; Salehi-Reyhan et al., 2017; Göpfrich et al., 2018; Guindani et al., 2022), Figure 1A.”
Protocell self-reproduction in a spatially extended metabolism–vesicle system
Macía, J., & Solé, R. V. (2007) · Journal of Theoretical Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2006.10.021 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Extensive experimental work has been developed using vesicles under a top- down approach (Luisi, 2002).”
Synthesising a minimal cell with artificial metabolic pathways
Kurisu, M., Katayama, R., Sakuma, Y., Kawakatsu, T., Walde, P., & Imai, M. (2023) · Communications Chemistry · doi:10.1038/s42004-023-00856-y · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“(13) and (14) were determined experimentally from the time evolution of the PANI-ES synthesis on AOT LUVs triggered with the direct addition of H2O2 (control experiment-0: Supplementary Note 2-1 and 3-3(iii)), and k5 of Eq.”
MethodLibicher, K., & Mutschler, H. (2020) · Chemical Communications · doi:10.1039/d0cc06515c · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Ichihashi, N., Matsuura, T., Kita, H., Hosoda, K., Sunami, T., Tsukada, K., & Yomo, T. (2008) · ChemBioChem · doi:10.1002/cbic.200800518 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Are prions related to the emergence of early life?
Lupi, O., Dadalti, P., Cruz, E., & Sanberg, P. R. (2006) · Medical Hypotheses · doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2006.04.056 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Competition between RNA may have favored the emergence of cooperation between different RNA chains, opening the way for the formation of the first proto-cell [2,4].”
BackgroundNakatani, Y., Ribeiro, N., Streiff, S., Gotoh, M., Pozzi, G., Désaubry, L., & Milon, A. (2014) · Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres · doi:10.1007/s11084-014-9365-6 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“…series of new properties are automatically brought into operation and make it possible to progressively complexify the system towards proto-cells (Walde et al. 1994; Ourisson and Nakatani 1999, 2006; Szostak et al. 2001; Luisi 2002; Takakura et al. 2003; Walde 2006; Luisi and Stano 2011).”
BackgroundMicroelectronic Morphogenesis: Smart Materials with Electronics Assembling into Artificial Organisms
McCaskill, J. S., Karnaushenko, D., Zhu, M., & Schmidt, O. G. (2023) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.202306344 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Toyota, T., Tsuha, H., Yamada, K., Takakura, K., Yasuda, K., & Sugawara, T. (2006) · Langmuir · doi:10.1021/la0529198 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Magarini, M., & Stano, P. (2021) · Frontiers in Communications and Networks · doi:10.3389/frcmn.2021.724597 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“…cell/genome” one (Gil et al. (2004); Forster and Church (2006); Hutchison et al. (2016)), and 2) the construction of cell-like systems from scratch (Luisi (2002); Luisi et al. (2006); Ichihashi et al. (2010); Nourian et al. (2014); Schwille et al. (2018); Göpfrich et al. (2018); Deshpande and…”
BackgroundA Wetware Embodied AI? Towards an Autopoietic Organizational Approach Grounded in Synthetic Biology
Damiano, L., & Stano, P. (2021) · Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology · doi:10.3389/fbioe.2021.724023 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“Typical targets are the modelling of living cells and living-like behavior by a total reconstruction, from scratch, of cell models (Luisi, 2002; Schwille et al., 2018).”
BackgroundGenome Engineering of the Fast-Growing Mycoplasma feriruminatoris toward a Live Vaccine Chassis
Talenton, V., Baby, V., Gourgues, G., Mouden, C., Claverol, S., Vashee, S., Blanchard, A., Labroussaa, F., Jores, J., Arfi, Y., et al. (2022) · ACS Synthetic Biology · doi:10.1021/acssynbio.2c00062 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Building the blueprint of life
Henry, C. S., Overbeek, R., & Stevens, R. L. (2010) · Biotechnology Journal · doi:10.1002/biot.201000076 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“All the approaches can be classified as either top down or bottom up [4].”
BackgroundIonic Combisomes: A New Class of Biomimetic Vesicles to Fuse with Life
Wagner, A. M., Quandt, J., Söder, D., Garay‐Sarmiento, M., Joseph, A., Petrovskii, V. S., Witzdam, L., Hammoor, T., Steitz, P., Haraszti, T., et al. (2022) · Advanced Science · doi:10.1002/advs.202200617 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Toward the assembly of a minimal divisome
Nourian, Z., Scott, A., & Danelon, C. (2014) · Journal of Systems and Synthetic Biology · doi:10.1007/s11693-014-9150-x · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“under well-controlled conditions (Luisi 2002; Luisi et al. 2006; Noireaux et al. 2011; Schwille 2011).”
BackgroundHolt, R. A., Warren, R. M., Flibotte, S., Missirlis, P. I., & Smailus, D. E. (2007) · BioEssays · doi:10.1002/bies.20585 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Living cells and biological mechanisms as prototypes for developing chemical artificial intelligence
Gentili, P. L., & Stano, P. (2024) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2024.150060 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Catalysis in abiotic structured media: an approach to selective synthesis of biopolymers
Monnard, P.-A. (2005) · Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences · doi:10.1007/s00018-004-4342-2 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Tian, J., Xing, B., Li, M., Xu, C., Huo, Y., & Guo, S. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms23094853 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
The Rise of the Nested Multicompartment Model in Synthetic Cell Research
Altamura, E., Albanese, P., Mavelli, F., & Stano, P. (2021) · Frontiers in Molecular Biosciences · doi:10.3389/fmolb.2021.750576 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“…IN SYNTHETIC CELL RESEARCH The attractiveness of the “bottom-up” approach as a viable route for constructing cell-like systems (Luisi, 2002; Stano, 2019) is clearly evident by the ever increasing number of international projects and initiatives dedicated to this fascinating…”
MethodSynthetic Cells Extract Semantic Information From Their Environment
Ruzzante, B., Moro, L. D., Magarini, M., & Stano, P. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Molecular Biological and Multi-Scale Communications · doi:10.1109/tmbmc.2023.3244399 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Bottom-up SCs can be defined as man-made molecular systems partially resembling biological cells both in structure and function [9].”
BackgroundDamiano, L., & Stano, P. (2023) · Artificial Life · doi:10.1162/artl_a_00411 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“…but also to construct from scratch synthetic (or artificial) cells (SCs/ACs) (Buddingh’ & van Hest, 2017; Gaut & Adamala, 2021; Guindani et al., 2022; Luisi, 2002; Luisi et al., 2006; Mansy & Szostak, 2009; Salehi-Reyhani et al., 2017), which enables SB to fully express an original explorative…”
BackgroundNanoporous Silica-Based Protocells at Multiple Scales for Designs of Life and Nanomedicine
Sun, J., Jakobsson, E., Wang, Y., & Brinker, C. J. (2015) · Life · doi:10.3390/life5010214 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“regarded as complementary and synergistic to both other synthetic biology work, that begins with a living cell [2,61], or other protocell work, that begins with the concept of a self-replicating chemical network [7,61–63].”
Recurrent neural networks in synthetic cells: a route to autonomous molecular agents?
Braccini, M., Collinson, E., Roli, A., Fellermann, H., & Stano, P. (2023) · Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology · doi:10.3389/fbioe.2023.1210334 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“…from scratch by a guided-assembly procedure to generate simple solute-fi lled compartments of the same size and roughly similar structure as biological cells (Figures 1A, B) (Luisi, 2002; Noireaux and Libchaber, 2004; Kita et al., 2008; Lentini et al., 2017; Stano, 2019; Eto et al., 2022).”
MethodBailoni, E., & Poolman, B. (2022) · ACS Synthetic Biology · doi:10.1021/acssynbio.2c00075 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“2,3,6,25,27 Importantly, internal recycling networks complementary to the protein-mediated exchange of nutrients and waste products are key to avoiding thermodynamic equilibrium.”
BackgroundMembrane Models and Experiments Suitable for Studies of the Cholesterol Bilayer Domains
Mardešić, I., Boban, Z., Subczynski, W. K., & Raguž, M. (2023) · Membranes · doi:10.3390/membranes13030320 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“them to build cell-like systems that form whole-cellular models [36].”
BackgroundGene‐Directed FtsZ Ring Assembly Generates Constricted Liposomes with Stable Membrane Necks
Godino, E., & Danelon, C. (2023) · Advances in Biology · doi:10.1002/adbi.202200172 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Question 7: Construction of a Semi-Synthetic Minimal Cell: A Model for Early Living Cells
Murtas, G. (2007) · Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres · doi:10.1007/s11084-007-9090-5 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“In future the reconstruction of a minimal ribosome could bring the number of genes required for ribosomal proteins from 54 of an existing minimal genome (Luisi 2002), down to 30–20 genes.”
BackgroundBiocentrism and Artificial Life
Attfield, R. (2012) · Environmental Values · doi:10.3197/096327112x13225063228069 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Stochastic Simulation of the Chemoton
Segbroeck, S. V., Nowé, A., & Lenaerts, T. (2009) · Artificial Life · doi:10.1162/artl.2009.15.2.15203 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Though not realized yet, significant progress seems to have been made in the creation of such an artificial cell in the laboratory (see, e.g., [ 10 ]).”
A protocell with fusion and division
Xu, B., Xu, J. C., & Yomo, T. (2019) · Biochemical Society Transactions · doi:10.1042/bst20190576 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Chiarabelli, C., & Luisi, P. L. (2014) · Science Progress · doi:10.3184/003685014x13921159313230 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationGentili, P. L., & Stano, P. (2023) · Frontiers in Robotics and AI · doi:10.3389/frobt.2023.1266011 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“In particular, the Chemical Robot we are referring to can be fabricated through the bottom-up approach (Luisi, 2002; Guindani et al., 2022), i.e., by assembling all the molecular elements required to ensure the expected functions.”
MethodSeela, F., Xiong, H., & Budow, S. (2010) · Tetrahedron · doi:10.1016/j.tet.2010.03.086 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Monitoring mRNA and Protein Levels in Bulk and in Model Vesicle-Based Artificial Cells
van Nies, P., Canton, A. S., Nourian, Z., & Danelon, C. (2015) · Methods in enzymology on CD-ROM/Methods in enzymology · doi:10.1016/bs.mie.2014.10.048 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Multi-Armed Droplets as Shape-Changing Protocells
Čejková, J., Hanczyc, M. M., & Štĕpánek, F. (2018) · Artificial Life · doi:10.1162/artl_a_00255 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“The ability to maintain homeostasis, to self-reproduce, and to evolve are three characteristics that may define a natural living cell [20].”
BackgroundAn Introduction to Synthetic Biology
Lam, C. M. C., Godinho, M., & dos Santos, V. A. P. M. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-90-481-2678-1_3 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Chemical Systems for Wetware Artificial Life: Selected Perspectives in Synthetic Cell Research
Stano, P. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms241814138 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Molecular Communications in the Context of “Synthetic Cells” Research
Rampioni, G., Leoni, L., & Stano, P. (2018) · IEEE Transactions on NanoBioscience · doi:10.1109/tnb.2018.2882543 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Question 7: New Aspects of Interactions Among Vesicles
Stano, P. (2007) · Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres · doi:10.1007/s11084-007-9086-1 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Research Centre “Enrico Fermi”, Compendio del Viminale, 00184 Rome, Italy e-mail: stano@uniroma3.it ‘minimal cells’ ( Luisi 2002 ) has been used to describe such bodies, meaning ‘cells with minimal functions ensuring life’.”
MethodHidden protein functions and what they may teach us
Schwille, P., & Frohn, B. P. (2022) · Trends in Cell Biology · doi:10.1016/j.tcb.2021.09.006 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
- Authors
- Luisi, P. L.
- Affiliations
- ETH Zurich (CH)
- Corresponding author
- Luisi, Pier Luigi
- Venue
- The Anatomical Record
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2002-10-09
- Volume
- 268
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 208-214
- ISSN
- 0003-276X (ISSN-L)
- 1097-0185
- OpenAlex
- W2005252032
- Cited by
- 175
- References
- 18
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 32 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 1.90
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The Anatomical Record (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Origins and Evolution of Life
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › RNA and protein synthesis mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › Philosophy and History of Science
- Keywords
- minimal cell, artificial cells, bottom-up approach, top-down approach, liposomes, giant vesicles, Qβ replicase, phospholipid vesicles, in vitro translation, origin of life, microinjection
- MeSH terms
- Origin of Life, Biopolymers, Cell Physiological Phenomena, DNA Replication, Liposomes, Models, Biological, RNA, Life, Evolution, Chemical
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
