Experience of Trauma and PTSD Symptoms in Autistic Adults: Risk of PTSD Development Following DSM‐5 and Non‐DSM‐5 Traumatic Life Events
Open accessAbstract
Research to date suggests that individuals with autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) may be at increased risk of developing post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) following exposure to traumatic life events. It has been posited that characteristics of ASD may affect perceptions of trauma, with a wider range of life events acting as possible catalysts for PTSD development. This study set out to explore the nature of “trauma” for adults with ASD and the rates of self‐reported PTSD symptomatology following DSM‐5 and non‐DSM‐5 traumas—the latter being defined as those that would not meet the standard DSM‐5 PTSD trauma Criterion A. Fifty‐nine adults with ASD who reported exposure to traumatic events took part in the study, which involved completing a series of online questionnaires. Thirty‐three individuals reported experiencing a “DSM‐5” traumatic event (i.e., an event meeting DSM‐5 PTSD Criterion A) and 35 reported a “non‐DSM‐5” traumautic event. Trauma‐exposed ASD adults were found to be at increased risk of PTSD development, compared to previous general population statistics, with PTSD symptom scores crossing thresholds suggestive of probable PTSD diagnosis for more than 40% of ASD individuals following DSM‐5 or non‐DSM‐5 traumas. A broader range of life events appear to be experienced as traumatic and may act as a catalyst for PTSD development in adults with ASD. Assessment of trauma and PTSD symptomatology should consider possible non‐DSM‐5 traumas in this population, and PTSD diagnosis and treatment should not be withheld simply due to the atypicality of the experienced traumatic event. Lay Summary: This study explored the experience of trauma and rates of probable post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults with autistic spectrum disorder (ASD). We asked 59 autistic adults to complete online questionnaires about their experiences of stressful or traumatic events and related mental health difficulties. Autistic adults experienced a wide range of life events as traumatic, with over 40% showing probable PTSD within the last month and over 60% reporting probable PTSD at some point in their lifetime. Many of the life events experienced as traumas would not be recognized in some current diagnostic systems, raising concerns that autistic people may not receive the help they need for likely PTSD.
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Societal issues such as stigmatisation, lack of acceptance, insufficient understanding, bullying, and social trauma contribute significantly to the development of comorbidities in autistic individuals.
“In addition to social camouflaging, societal issues contribute significantly to the development of comorbidities in autistic individuals.These include societal stigmatisation, lack of acceptance, insufficient understanding of autism by others, bullying, and social trauma (Rehman et al., 2022;Rumball et al., 2020).”
From Rethinking psychological interventions in autism: Toward a neurodiversity‐affirming approach. (2025) · cites this paper as Rumball et al., 2020
The Discussion (page unavailable in our copy) identifies bullying as a commonly reported non-DSM-5 trauma among autistic adults and links such traumas to self-reported PTSD symptoms. It does not establish that stigmatisation, lack of acceptance, or insufficient understanding contribute significantly to the development of comorbidities generally; its findings concern PTSD in a trauma-exposed adult sample. (LLM, conf=0.88)
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“Of these ten studies, three also assessed non-DSM-5 traumas, using the qualitative response in the LEC-5 to record ‘other’ traumatic events (Rumball et al., 2021b) or enquiring if any other event felt traumatic, caused avoidance or intrusions (Rumball et al., 2020, 2021a).”
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“The trauma criterion resonates with previous findings suggesting that autistic people are highly vulnerable to trauma following events, such as sustained bullying (Rumball et al., 2020).”
BackgroundUsing EMDR with autistic individuals: A Delphi survey with EMDR therapists
Fisher, N., van Diest, C., Leoni, M., & Spain, D. (2023) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613221080254 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“…autistic individuals, there is an atypicality (or potentially, an autism-specificity) in terms of events construed as traumatic (Kerns et al., 2015; Rumball et al., 2020), for example, relating to changes to routines, rule-breaking of others, difficulties in making sense of events and sensory…”
BackgroundKildahl, A. N., & Helverschou, S. B. (2023) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613231190948 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“…indicating that trauma exposure is common in autistic people (Gibbs et al., 2021; Haruvi-Lamdan et al., 2020; Reuben et al., 2021; Rumball, 2019; Rumball et al., 2020), and people with intellectual disabilities (Daveney et al., 2019; Mevissen et al., 2016; Tomsa et al., 2021; Wigham & Emerson,…”
BackgroundGenetic and early environmental predictors of adulthood self-reports of trauma
Peel, A., Purves, K., Baldwin, J., Breen, G., Coleman, J., Pingault, J.-B., Skelton, M., ter Kuile, A. T., Danese, A., & Eley, T. (2021) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.2021.207 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Co-occurring mental health symptoms and cognitive processes in trauma-exposed ASD adults
Rumball, F., Antal, K., Happe, F. G. E., & Grey, N. (2021) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2020.103836 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citationCurnow, E., Utley, I., Rutherford, M., Johnston, L., & Maciver, D. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1258204 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“The diagnostic process can be a traumatic event for some adults (16).”
BackgroundPoly‐victimization of autistic adults: An investigation of individual‐level correlates
Gibbs, V., Hudson, J. L., & Pellicano, E. (2023) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.3031 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“…victimization among autistic people (Brown et al., 2017; Brown-Lavoie et al., 2014; Gibbs et al., 2021; Griffiths et al., 2019; Reuben et al., 2021; Rumball et al., 2020) and the broad range of debilitating and adverse outcomes often associated with such experiences (Dworkin et al., 2017; Lagdon…”
BackgroundGonzález‐Herrero, B., Happe, F. G. E., Nicholson, T. R., Morgante, F., Pagonabarraga, J., Deeley, Q., & Edwards, M. J. (2024) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.70168 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationExpert consensus regarding indicators of a traumatic reaction in autistic youth: A Delphi survey
Kerns, C., Robins, D., Shattuck, P., Newschaffer, C., & Berkowitz, S. (2022) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13666 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Kildahl, A., Oddli, H., & Helverschou, S. B. (2020) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2020.103788 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Bemmouna, D., & Weiner, L. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1238116 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Furthermore, the heightened exposure of autistic people to adverse experiences persists in adulthood (140, 148).”
BackgroundColeman, O., Baldwin, J. R., Dalgleish, T., Rose‐Clarke, K., Widom, C. S., & Danese, A. (2024) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.14048 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Examining Rates of Traumatic Events and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms Among Autistic Adults
Andrzejewski, T. M., Batista, S. G., Abu-Ramadan, T. M., Breitenfeldt, K. E., Tassone, A. U., Winch, A. T., Rozek, D. C., & McDonnell, C. G. (2023) · Autism in Adulthood · doi:10.1089/aut.2023.0022 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“1,10 Rumball et al. highlighted that it is essential to assess for a broader range of potentially traumatic events, 1 given that the traditional range of events consistent with the DSM-5 excludes many traumatic events experienced by autistic adults (e.g., peer victimization).”
InfluentialQuinn, A., Wood, A. M., Lodge, K.-M., & Hollins, S. (2023) · BJ Psych Advances · doi:10.1192/bja.2023.31 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Research Mapping of Trauma Experiences in Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Bibliometric Analysis
González, O. H., Fresno, A., Spencer, R., Mínguez, R. T., Fernández, D. G., & Sepúlveda-Opazo, F. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11091267 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“The inherent characteristics of ASD may make affected individuals more vulnerable to traumatic experiences on multiple levels [7].”
BackgroundTaylor, S. C., Smernoff, Z., Rajan, M., Steeman, S. L., Gehringer, B. N., Dow, H. C., Barzilay, R., Rader, D. J., Bućan, M., Almasy, L. A., et al. (2022) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.01.046 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Moreover, our results suggest that mental health treatments for autistic individuals needs to be trauma-informed (Benevides et al., 2020; Peterson et al., 2019; Rumball et al., 2020, 2021).”
Moseley, R., Gregory, N. J., Smith, P., Allison, C., Cassidy, S., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2023) · Autism in Adulthood · doi:10.1089/aut.2022.0042 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Kitamura, S., Makinodan, M., Matsuoka, K., Takahashi, M., Yoshikawa, H., Ishida, R., Kishimoto, N., Yasuno, F., Yasuda, Y., Hashimoto, R., et al. (2021) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2558 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Unlike typical PTSD, a broader range of stressors can be interpreted as traumatic events associated with in ASD (Brewin et al., 2019; Kerns et al., 2015; Lobregt-van Buuren et al., 2019; Rumball et al., 2020).”
BackgroundLi, S.-T., Chien, W., Chung, C., & Tzeng, N. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1329836 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Mukherjee, S., & Beresford, B. (2023) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613231158959 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Such beliefs certainly align with other work reporting autistic adults to perceive such life events as more stressful than non-autistic individuals (Bishop-Fitzpatrick et al., 2017; Rumball et al., 2020; Taylor & Gotham, 2016).”
ResultGenetic Decomposition of the Heritable Component of Reported Childhood Maltreatment
ter Kuile, A., Hübel, C., Cheesman, R., Coleman, J. R. I., Peel, A. J., Levey, D. F., Stein, M. B., Gelernter, J. E., Rayner, C., Eley, T. C., et al. (2023) · Biological Psychiatry Global Open Science · doi:10.1016/j.bpsgos.2023.03.003 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Future research should determine the specific heritable components of ASD related to the subjective experience of and exposure to trauma and the potential for screening for posttraumatic symptoms in ASD to provide appropriate support (67).”
BackgroundTwo Halves of the Same Whole: A Framework to Integrate Autism and Mental Health Services
Cleary, M., West, S., Mclean, L., Kornhaber, R., & Hungerford, C. (2022) · Issues in Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1080/01612840.2022.2126570 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“However, the experience of trauma and the resulting symptoms can vary in those on the autism spectrum, suggesting challenges in recognising the impact of trauma on autistic people (Rumball et al., 2020).”
BackgroundA Qualitative Study of Self and Caregiver Perspectives on How Autistic Individuals Cope With Trauma
Ng‐Cordell, E., Rai, A., Peracha, H., Garfield, T., Lankenau, S. E., Robins, D. L., Berkowitz, S. J., Newschaffer, C. J., & Kerns, C. M. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.825008 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Given studies suggesting that for autistic individuals, traumatic reactions arise from a broad array of experiences and not only those events defined in PTSD criteria (28, 46, 52), trauma sources were not restricted so long as they were associated with prolonged (>1 month) distress.”
BackgroundResultTrauma informed participatory research: Reflections on co-producing a research proposal
Lonbay, S., Pearson, A., Hamilton, E., Higgins, P., Foulkes, E., & Glascott, M. (2021) · Gateways : International Journal of Community Research & Engagement · doi:10.5130/ijcre.v14i1.7728 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Smythe, L., Asan, L., Nicholson, T. R., Happe, F. G. E., & Edwards, M. J. (2025) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-025-13385-6 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Autistic adults are four times more likely to have PTSD than non-autistic adults [33], thus the role of traumatic experiences in autistic people’s vulnerability to developing FND requires focused research.”
Self-citationDialectical Behavior Therapy in Autism
Weiner, L., Bemmouna, D., Costache, M. E., & Martz, É. (2025) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-025-01596-7 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“The influence of environmental factors (e.g., school bullying, autism stigma), however, has been less studied, despite the increasing awareness of their impact on the emotional well-being in this population [19–22].”
InfluentialGenetic and environment influences on childhood victimization: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Dahoun, T., Peel, A., Baldwin, J., Coleman, O., Lewis, S. J., Wertz, J., Rijsdijk, F. V., & Danese, A. (2024) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-024-02868-z · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Woodhouse, E., Hollingdale, J., Davies, L., Al‐Attar, Z., Young, S., Vinter, L. P., Agyemang, K., Bartlett, C., Berryessa, C. M., Chaplin, E., et al. (2024) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-024-03320-3 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Development and Initial Validation of the Autism and Neurodiversity Attitudes Scale
VanDaalen, R. A., Dillon, F. R., Santos, C. E., & Rosario, C. C. (2024) · Autism in Adulthood · doi:10.1089/aut.2023.0090 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“For example, the scale could be used to assess the relationship between endorsement of the neurodiversity framework and mental health variables among autistic adults, a population that faces heightened risks of certain mental health concerns, 78 trauma and victimization, 79,80 and unemployment.”
Powell, T., Parker, J., Kitson, H., & Rogalewski, M. (2024) · Autism in Adulthood · doi:10.1089/aut.2023.0031 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Such factors may make individuals more vulnerable to BPD or cPTSD 29,30 or alternatively being mislabeled with BPD. 7, 7,11,26,28 Self-harm in autism is strongly associated with sensory and social overload, change and uncertainty.”
Predictors of Sexual Victimization Among Autistic and Non-Autistic College Students
Libster, N., Kasari, C. L., & Sturm, A. (2023) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-023-06064-w · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Prior research further indicates that autistic adults may be at heightened risk of developing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after experiencing trauma (Haruvi-Lamden et al., 2018; 2020; Rumball et al., 2020).”
Kildahl, A., & Jørstad, I. (2021) · Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability · doi:10.3109/13668250.2021.1995930 · Cited by 10
“…traumatic experiences (Daveney et al., 2019; Fogden et al., 2016; Kildahl et al., 2019) and may be more vulnerable to developing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD; Haruvi-Lamdan et al., 2020; Mason-Roberts et al., 2018; Rittmannsberger, Weber et al., 2020; Rumball et al., 2020, 2021).”
BackgroundParvalbumin interneuron activity in autism underlies susceptibility to PTSD-like memory formation
Abed, A. S. A., Allen, T. V., Ahmed, N. Y., Sellami, A., Sontani, Y., Rawlinson, E. C., Marighetto, A., Desmedt, A., & Dehorter, N. (2024) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2024.109747 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“8,48 As newmethodsof detectionemerge, 49 our study calls for better use of predictive tools that enable efficient risk assessment and early interventions of PTSD among those likely to experience trauma, such as peoplewith autism.”
Hollocks, M., Meiser-Stedman, R., Kent, R., Lukito, S., Briskman, J., Stringer, D., Lord, C., Pickles, A., Baird, G., Charman, T., et al. (2021) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2548 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Whilst the focus of this paper is not on trauma, or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), as typically defined, evidence suggests that exposure to a range of adverse life events can lead to a later PTSD diagnosis in those with ASD (Hoch & Youssef, 2020).”
BackgroundInfluentialA qualitative study of autistic adults’ quality of life during the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdowns
Stewart, G. R., Leoni, M., Charlton, R. A., Pickard, H. R., & Happé, F. (2023) · Autism in Adulthood · doi:10.1089/aut.2022.0035 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Fisher, N., Patel, H., van Diest, C., & Spain, D. (2022) · Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12419 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“This is consistent with findings from qualitative (Kerns et al, in press) and quantitative (Rumball et al., 2020) research, indicating some autistic individuals experience trauma responses to subjectively aversive events.”
ResultElucidating the presentation and identification of PTSD in autistic adults: a modified Delphi study
Rumball, F., Parker, R., Madigan, A., Happé, F., & Spain, D. (2023) · Advances in Autism · doi:10.1108/aia-08-2023-0053 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationZhao, X., Li, W., Li, X.-J., Shi, W.-D., & Li, C.-B. (2022) · Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2022.102042 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Nisticò, V., Gambini, O., Pizzi, L., Faggioli, R., Priori, A., & Demartini, B. (2021) · Journal of clinical neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.jocn.2021.11.026 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Autism Spectrum Disorder Risk Factor Met Regulates the Organization of Inhibitory Synapses
Jeckel, P., Kriebel, M., & Volkmer, H. (2021) · Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnmol.2021.659856 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“, 2014) since ASD was reported to coincide with an increased stress response (Rumball et al., 2020).”
BackgroundMazefsky, C. A., Conner, C. M., Siegle, G. J., Scott, L. N., Bylsma, L. M., Beck, K. B., Antezana, L., Hu, X., Cohen, A. D., Borue, X., et al. (2025) · Autism in Adulthood · doi:10.1177/25739581251393807 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Association Between Autism and PTSD Among Adult Psychiatric Outpatients
Agebjörn, J., Gillberg, C., Eberhard, J., Billstedt, E., & Nyrenius, J. (2024) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-024-06439-7 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…to trauma are comparable to previous studies, that have reported traumatic experiences to be somewhat more common among individuals with ASD than among those without ASD, and relatively common among psychiatric patients in general (Rumball et al., 2020; Møller et al., 2020; Mauritz et et al. 2013).”
An Investigation of Dissociative Symptoms and Related Factors in Autistic Adolescents
Dinçel, M., & Karayağmurlu, A. (2024) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-024-06374-7 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…population is crucial to acquiring a comprehensive insight into the inner experiences and needs of autistic individuals and for developing effective interventions (Golan et al., 2022; Haruvi-Lamdan et al., 2018, 2020; Connor Morrow Kerns et al., 2015; Ng-Cordell et al., 2022; Rumball et al., 2020).”
Webb, E., Gencarelli, B. L., Keaveney, G., & Morris, D. (2024) · Advances in Autism · doi:10.1108/aia-07-2023-0037 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Finding Similarities in Differences Between Autistic Adults: Two Replicated Subgroups
Radhoe, T. A., van Rentergem, J. A. A., Torenvliet, C., Groenman, A. P., van der Putten, W., & Geurts, H. M. (2023) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-023-06042-2 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“…We used the List of Threatening Experiences to measure the number of negative life events in the past year (Brugha et al., 1985), as this number varies between autistic adults and they form a risk for psychological difficulties and lower QoL (Bishop-Fitzpatrick et al., 2017; Rumball et al., 2020).”
MethodAutistic SPACE(S) in Social Work
Guthrie, J., Doherty, M., Shaw, S. C. K., O'Reilly, M., Chinnéide, E. N., & Archard, P. (2024) · Practice · doi:10.1080/09503153.2024.2423405 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Cusano, J. L., Holmes, L. G., Caplan, R., & Rothman, E. F. (2024) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605241275997 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Currently, there is little research on protective factors or resilience after trauma among autistic youth, despite many studies finding high rates of exposure to adverse experiences and post-traumatic stress in this population (Rumball et al., 2020).”
Luiselli, J. K., Bird, F. L., Harper, J. M., Ruane, J., & Weiss, M. J. (2024) · Behavior Analysis in Practice · doi:10.1007/s40617-024-00972-8 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Other events not classified within the DSM-V also may be a source of trauma and evoke behavior consistent with a PTSD diagnosis (Rumball et al., 2020).”
The childbearing and mental health experiences of autistic mothers: a systematic review
González, O. H., Fernández, D. G., Contreras, R. E. S., Gillespie-Smith, K., & Rojas, E. J. (2024) · International Journal of Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1080/20473869.2024.2353456 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“In addition, autistic women have to deal with a greater amount of negative experiences in socio-cultural environments compared to neurotypical women increasing the risk of poor mental health outcomes (Morgan 2020; Rumball, Happ � e, and Grey 2020; Sala, Hooley, and Stokes 2020).”
Kitamura, S., Matsuoka, K., Takahashi, M., Yoshikawa, H., Minami, A., Ohnishi, H., Ishida, R., Miyasaka, T., Tai, Y.-M., Ochi, T., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1215429 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Previous studies have reported that exposure to early life trauma associated with PTSD in adults with ASD (10, 59, 60), which was consistent with our findings.”
ResultNisticò, V., Gambini, O., Faggioli, R., & Demartini, B. (2020) · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-47184/v1 · Cited by 5
“Recently, also symptoms related to PTSD have been found to be higher in individuals with HF-ASD than the general population (Rumball et al. 2020).”
BackgroundResultExperiences of Trauma and PTSD Symptoms in Autistic Adolescents: Preliminary Findings
Lau-Zhu, A., Quinton, A. M. G., Stacey, J., Roberts-Davis, R. J., Cooper, M., Chan, C., & Happé, F. (2026) · Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/13591045261418319 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“These included bullying, bereavement, events involving change/uncertainty, and family stresses, echoing fi ndings in autistic adults (Kerns, Lankenau, et al., 2022; Rumball et al., 2020) and qualitative data from Note.”
InfluentialSelf-citationKang, M., Kim, S., Shin, W., Kim, K., Jung, Y., Choi, W., Paik, S., & Kim, E. (2025) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adr7691 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Day, A.-M. (2025) · Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties · doi:10.1080/13632752.2025.2499788 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“…argued that a neurodivergent person’s more reactive nervous system, increased risk of victimisation, sensitive sensory profiles and the stress of living in a neurotypical world make neurodivergent people more vulnerable to experiencing trauma (Fenning et al. 2019; Rumball, Happé, and Grey 2020).”
Autistic traits in childhood and post‐traumatic stress disorder as young adults: a cohort study
Quinton, A. M. G., Rumball, F., Ronald, A., Fisher, H. L., Arseneault, L., Happe, F. G. E., & Danese, A. (2025) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.14163 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationUnderstanding Autistic Young Adults' Perceptions and Experiences of Traumatic and Stressful Events
Lim, A., & Young, R. L. (2025) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.23783 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Considering recent research findings that some autistic individuals perceive a broader range of life events to be traumatic (Rumball et al. 2020), we were also interested to better understand the factors that contributed to clinically significant symptoms among autistic young adults who had not…”
InfluentialExploring the landscape of adult autism research in psychology: a bibliometric and network analysis
Mota, F. B., Braga, L., & Cabral, B. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1427090 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Neurodivergence and the Rabbit Hole of Extremism: Uncovering Lived Experience
Wijekoon, S., Robison, J. E., Welch, C., Westphal, A., Loftin, R. L., Perry, B., Rombos, V., Picciolini, C., Bosyj, C., Senman, L., et al. (2024) · Autism in Adulthood · doi:10.1089/aut.2023.0192 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“37 Given the small sample size of this study, further research on pathways to radicalization, prevention, and outcomes is needed.”
McKenney, E. E., Cucchiara, C. L., Senanayake, A., & Gotham, K. O. (2024) · Journal of Sex Research · doi:10.1080/00224499.2024.2365273 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“…studied, autistic individuals appear to be at greater risk than their non-autistic peers of developing PTSD symptoms following traumatic events (Rumball et al., 2020), as defined by the DSM-5, such that the event involved “actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence”…”
InfluentialScibelli, J., Scibelli, F., Luiselli, J. K., Hrdina, J., Anglin, K., & Orchanian, S. (2022) · Clinical Case Studies · doi:10.1177/15346501221081254 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Finally, persons with ASD may have been exposed to traumatic events, often enduring, that predispose them to anxiety disorders, PTSD, and other psychiatric comorbidities (Hoover, 2015; Rumball et al., 2020).”
BackgroundBrake, J., Cox, S., & Palmer, P. (2024) · Scandinavian Journal of Disability Research · doi:10.16993/sjdr.1102 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Elwyn, R. (2026) · Early Intervention in Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/eip.70187 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Jia, Y., Xu, Z., Yang, J.-M., Chai, J.-B., Li, W., Xu, H., & Li, X.-H. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1737322 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Cole, R. H., Smythe, L., Edwards, M. J., Happe, F. G. E., & Nicholson, T. R. (2025) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613251393504 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Furthermore, evidence is growing of events not meeting the DSM-5 PTSD definition of trauma (such as sensory overload, loss of routine and distressing healthcare encounters) triggering traumatic stress or PTSD in autistic individuals (Rumball et al., 2020).”
Self-citationSonuga-Barke, E., Palmer, M., Griffiths, K., Wyatt, A., Danese, A., Chandler, S., Stahl, D., Lukito, S., Pavlopoulou, G., & Simonoff, E. (2025) · JCPP Advances · doi:10.1002/jcv2.70052 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…ADHD and autism are exposed to elevated levels of daily hassles, stressors and negative life events, compared to neurotypical individuals (Eccleston et al., 2019; Taylor & Gotham, 2016), and that certain exposures have heightened salience for them (Beck et al., 2024; Rumball et al., 2020, 2021).”
Hong, M., & Lv, S. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03059-3 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Autistic characteristics may influence the experience of trauma at multiple levels, altering not only the rate of potentially traumatic events but also the range of experiences appraised as traumatic [16, 17].”
McKenney, E. E., Cucchiara, C. L., Zapotitla, S. B., & Gotham, K. O. (2024) · American Journal of Sexuality Education · doi:10.1080/15546128.2024.2445171 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…While other mental and physical health concerns of autistic people who have experienced sexual trauma have not been studied longitudinally, autistic individuals appear to be at greater risk than their non-autistic peers of developing PTSD symptoms following traumatic events (Rumball et al., 2020).”
Junewicz, A., Dhir, S., Guo, F., Song, Y., Stein, C. R., & Baroni, A. (2024) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613241274832 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“There is evidence that autistic individuals experience a broader range of events as traumatic (Haruvi-Lamdan et al., 2020; Kerns et al., 2023; Rumball et al., 2020).”
Wilson, A. C. (2024) · Autism in Adulthood · doi:10.1089/aut.2024.0009 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Song, Y., Zhao, Y., Baranova, A. V., Cao, H., Yue, W., & Zhang, F. (2024) · Psychiatric Genetics · doi:10.1097/ypg.0000000000000357 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Research has shown that individuals with ASD are more susceptible to displaying symptoms of or being diagnosed with full-blown PTSD (Brenner et al. , 2018; Rumball et al. , 2020).”
Background
- Authors
- Rumball, F., Happé, F., & Grey, N.
- Affiliations
- King's College London (GB)
- King's College London London UK
- University of Sussex (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Rumball, Freya
- ORCID
- Rumball, Freya
- Venue
- Autism Research
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2020-04-22
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 2122-2132
- ISSN
- 1939-3792 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-3806
- OpenAlex
- W3016541693
- Cited by
- 180
- References
- 67
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 38 · 2023: 24 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 3
- FWCI
- 7.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Autism Research (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- DClin Psych departmental research grant from King's College London to the first author (N/A)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, posttraumatic stress symptoms, traumatic life events, trauma exposure, autistic adults, PTSD diagnosis, mental health
- MeSH terms
- Autism Spectrum Disorder, Humans, Surveys and Questionnaires, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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