The Relationship Between Anxiety and Repetitive Behaviours in Autism Spectrum Disorder
Open accessAbstract
Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder are vulnerable to anxiety. Repetitive behaviours are a core feature of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and have been associated anxiety. This study examined repetitive behaviours and anxiety in two groups of children with autism spectrum disorder, those with high anxiety and those with lower levels of anxiety. Children with high anxiety had more repetitive behaviours than those without anxiety. Within the anxiety sample, higher levels of insistence on sameness were associated with more anxiety. No association was found between sensory motor repetitive behaviours and anxiety in this group. In the non-anxious sample, anxiety was associated with sensory motor repetitive behaviours. These findings indicate a differential relationship for repetitive behaviours in relation to anxious and non-anxious children with ASD.
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Intolerance of uncertainty has been associated with some core characteristics of ASD.
“Recently, IU has been associated with some of the core characteristics of ASD [26–28].”
These behaviours bear a conceptual resemblance to IU, with its associated avoidance of unexpected events and the desire to make life as predictable as possible.
“These behaviours bear a conceptual resemblance to IU, with its associated avoidance of unexpected events and the desire to make life as predictable as possible (Rodgers et al. 2012).”
From Towards a Treatment for Intolerance of Uncertainty for Autistic Adults: A Single Case Experimental Design Study. (2018) · cites this paper as Rodgers et al. 2012
The concept of IU resonates clinically with some of the core characteristics of ASD.
“The concept resonates clinically with some of the core characteristics of ASD (Joyce et al. 2017; Rodgers et al. 2012; South and Rodgers 2017).”
From Towards a Treatment for Intolerance of Uncertainty for Autistic Adults: A Single Case Experimental Design Study. (2018) · cites this paper as Rodgers et al. 2012
The concept of IU resonates clinically with some of the core characteristics of ASD.
“Beyond the evident appropriateness of applying models found to be useful in typically developing populations, the concept itself resonates clinically with some of the core characteristics of ASD (Rodgers et al. 2012).”
From Towards a Treatment for Intolerance of Uncertainty in Young People with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Development of the Coping with Uncertainty in Everyday Situations (CUES©) Programme. (2017) · cites this paper as Rodgers et al. 2012
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“Higher levels of RRB are also associated with heightened anxiety, for example, insistence on sameness, may be a maladaptive coping response to anxiety (Rodgers et al. 2012; Lidstone et al. 2014).”
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“Rodgers et al. (2012) found that children with ASD and high anxiety had more repetitive behaviors than those without anxiety.”
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“Indeed, higher-level RRBs commonly associate with anxiety levels in typically developing children [Evans, Gray, & Leckman, 1999; Laing, Fernyhough, Turner, & Freeston, 2009; Zohar & Felz, 2001] and children with ASD [Rodgers et al., 2012; Uljarevi c & Evans, 2017].”
BackgroundAttitudes toward risk and ambiguity in patients with autism spectrum disorder
Fujino, J., Tei, S., Hashimoto, R., Itahashi, T., Ohta, H., Kanai, C., Okada, R., Kubota, M., Nakamura, M., Kato, N., et al. (2017) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-017-0162-8 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Understanding, recognising and treating co-occurring anxiety in autism
Rodgers, J., & Ofield, A. (2018) · Current Developmental Disorders Reports · doi:10.1007/s40474-018-0132-7 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Self-citationBaribeau, D. A., Vigod, S. N., Pullenayegum, E., Kerns, C. M., Mirenda, P., Smith, I. M., Vaillancourt, T., Volden, J., Waddell, C., Zwaigenbaum, L., et al. (2020) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.2020.127 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Herscu, P., Handen, B. L., Arnold, L. E., Snape, M. F., Bregman, J. D., Ginsberg, L., Hendren, R., Kolevzon, A., Melmed, R., Mintz, M., et al. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-019-04120-y · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Fage, C., Consel, C., Etchegoyhen, K., Amestoy, A., Bouvard, M., Mazon, C., & Sauzéon, H. (2019) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2018.12.003 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Examining associations between anxiety and cortisol in high functioning male children with autism
Simon, D. M., & Corbett, B. A. (2013) · Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders · doi:10.1186/1866-1955-5-32 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“In contrast, children with autism and lower anxiety display a positive association between anxiety and sensory motor repetitive behaviors [23].”
BackgroundMagiati, I., Lerh, J. W., Hollocks, M. J., Uljarević, M., Rodgers, J., McConachie, H., Ozsivadjian, A., South, M., Hecke, A. V. V., Hardan, A. Y., et al. (2017) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1809 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Self-citationRethinking Stereotypies in Autism
McCarty, M. J., & Brumback, A. C. (2021) · Seminars in Pediatric Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.spen.2021.100897 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Liu, H., Huang, X., Xu, J., Mao, H., Li, Y., Ren, K., Ma, G., Xue, Q., Tao, H., Wu, S., et al. (2021) · Neurobiology of Stress · doi:10.1016/j.ynstr.2021.100417 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Anxiety and intellectual functioning in autistic children: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Mingins, J., Tarver, J., Waite, J., Jones, C. A., & Surtees, A. D. R. (2020) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361320953253 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Many measures relied on parental recognition of behavioural symptoms of anxiety, which may be qualitatively different in children with ID, and hence not be detected by measures developed for use in neurotypical children (Rodgers et al., 2012).”
BackgroundUljarević, M., Arnott, B., Carrington, S. J., Meins, E., Fernyhough, C., McConachie, H., Couteur, A. S. L., & Leekam, S. (2017) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000324 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Self-citationAutistic adults’ experience of restricted repetitive behaviours
Collis, E., Gavin, J., Russell, A., & Brosnan, M. (2022) · Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2021.101895 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
An investigation of anxiety in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder
Williams, S., Leader, G., Mannion, A., & Chen, J. (2014) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2014.10.017 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Mast Cells, Stress, Fear and Autism Spectrum Disorder
Theoharides, T. C., Kavalioti, M., & Tsilioni, I. (2019) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms20153611 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“ASD patients are prone to stress, and their level of anxiety was strongly correlated with repetitive behaviors [169].”
BackgroundBig Data Approach to Characterize Restricted and Repetitive Behaviors in Autism
Uljarević, M., Frazier, T. W., Jo, B., Billingham, W. D., Cooper, M. N., Youngstrom, E. A., Scahill, L., & Hardan, A. Y. (2022) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2021.08.006 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Rodgers, J., Herrema, R., Honey, E., & Freeston, M. (2018) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3550-9 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“The concept resonates clinically with some of the core characteristics of ASD (Joyce et al. 2017; Rodgers et al. 2012; South and Rodgers 2017).”
BackgroundSelf-citationTrait Anxiety Attenuates Response Inhibition: Evidence From an ERP Study Using the Go/NoGo Task
Xia, L., Mo, L., Wang, J., Zhang, W., & Zhang, D. (2020) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2020.00028 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Moreover, several evidences suggested that repetitive compulsive behaviors and trait anxiety are highly positive related (Black, 2008; Rodgers et al., 2012; Goodwin, 2015).”
BackgroundKostrubiec, V., & Kruck, J. (2020) · Frontiers in Robotics and AI · doi:10.3389/frobt.2020.00037 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Hollocks, M. J., Charman, T., Baird, G., Lord, C., Pickles, A. R., & Simonoff, E. A. (2021) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613211046160 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Indeed, our findings show that RRBs were significantly associated with emotional symptoms in the same pattern as the more narrowly defined cognitive inflexibility points to an overlapping relationship, and is consistent with previous work on RRBs (Joyce et al., 2017; Rodgers et al., 2012).”
BackgroundResultThriving in Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Intellectual Disability
Weiss, J. A., & Riosa, P. B. (2015) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2412-y · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“…with home participation may be related to the higher levels of restricted interests and behaviors (Gabriels et al. 2005; Matson et al. 2008; Rodgers et al. 2012), emotional and behavioral problems (Bodfish et al. 2000; Brereton et al. 2006), and parental stress and mental health problems…”
BackgroundAl‐Attar, Z. (2020) · Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology · doi:10.1080/14789949.2020.1812695 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Atypical amygdala response to fear conditioning in autism spectrum disorder
Top Jr., D. N., Stephenson, K. G., Doxey, C. R., Crowley, M. J., Kirwan, C. B., & South, M. (2016) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2016.01.008 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Sensory Sensitivity and Intolerance of Uncertainty Influence Anxiety in Autistic Adults
Normansell-Mossa, K. M., Top, D. N., Russell, N., Freeston, M., Rodgers, J., & South, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731753 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“sameness and reduced cognitive flexibility may likewise be associated with IU (Rodgers et al., 2012; South & Rodgers, 2017; Wigham et al., 2014).”
BackgroundSelf-citationRajamani, K. T., Doherty-Lyons, S., Bolden, C. A., Willis, D., Hoffman, C. A., Zelikoff, J. T., Chen, L., & Gu, H. H. (2013) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1287 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Burrows, C. A., Timpano, K. R., & Uddin, L. Q. (2017) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702616683506 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Eisenberg, I. W., Wallace, G. L., Kenworthy, L. E., Gotts, S. J., & Martin, A. D. (2015) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-015-0047-7 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Alternatively, IS, unlike lower-level repetitive sensory and motor behaviors, has been linked with anxiety in ASD [51].”
BackgroundMoore, H. L., Brice, S., Powell, L., Ingham, B., Freeston, M., Parr, J. R., & Rodgers, J. (2022) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-021-05312-1 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Self-citationHobson, R. P. (2013) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361313497538 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“, 2010) arise from the absence of socially derived movements in thought and feeling, together with defensive channelling of motivation and interest according to what the individual can control and manage (also Baron-Cohen, 1989; Rodgers et al., 2012).”
BackgroundStuart, L., Grahame, V., Honey, E. J., & Freeston, M. H. (2019) · Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.1111/camh.12336 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
MacDuffie, K. E., MUNSON, J. A., Greenson, J., Ward, T. M., Rogers, S. J., Dawson, G., & Estes, A. M. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04438-y · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Assessment of Social Anxiety in Children and Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder
Kreiser, N. L., & White, S. W. (2014) · Clinical Psychology Science and Practice · doi:10.1111/cpsp.12057 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Maloret, P., & Scott, T. (2017) · Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/jpm.12438 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Agitation, aggressive and self- harming responses can also be a marker and an alleviator of anxiety within ASC populations (Lidstone et al., 2014; Rodgers et al., 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialSethi, C., Harrop, C., Zhang, W., Pritchett, J., Whitten, A., & Boyd, B. A. (2018) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361318810217 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“This finding was not surprising, as several studies have shown a link between insistence on sameness and anxiety (c.f.e. Joyce et al., 2017; Rodgers et al., 2012).”
ResultBrierley, N. J., McDonnell, C. G., Parks, K. M. A., Schulz, S. E., Dalal, T. C., Kelley, E. A., Anagnostou, E. A., Nicolson, R., Georgiades, S., Crosbie, J., et al. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04800-0 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Individuals with RRBs can often become anxious if their routines or rituals are interrupted (Rodgers et al. 2012), and the behaviors can often be socially inappropriate and can interfere with communication and learning (Rimmer et al.”
BackgroundUljarević, M., & Evans, D. W. (2016) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1674 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“These findings also support previous work on the RIS-anxiety association in ASD [Lidstone, Uljarević, et al., 2014; Rodgers et al., 2012] and in DS [Evans & Gray, 2000; Evans et al., 2014].”
BackgroundResultDubois-Sage, M., Jacquet, B., Jamet, F., & Baratgin, J. (2024) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs14020131 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“Given the link between stress and stereotyped behavior [80,81], Social Cognition Theory could explain why interaction with a robot minimizes the occurrence of stereotyped behavior if this result is confirmed by the scientific literature.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialAnxiety in Autism Spectrum Disorder
Uljarević, M., Nuske, H. J., & Vivanti, G. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-29695-1_2 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Tarver, J., Pearson, E., Edwards, G., Shirazi, A., Potter, L., Malhi, P., & Waite, J. (2020) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361320962366 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“For example, increasing repetitive behaviours could be an indicator of anxiety (Rodgers et al., 2012).”
BackgroundLosinski, M. L., Cook, K., Hirsch, S. E., & Sanders, S. (2017) · Behavioral Disorders · doi:10.1177/0198742917715873 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Effect of Stress on Neuroimmune Processes
Theoharides, T. C. (2020) · Clinical Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2020.05.002 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Bernaerts, S., Boets, B., Steyaert, J. G., Wenderoth, N., & Alaerts, K. (2020) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-020-01069-w · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Top Jr., D. N., Luke, S. G., Stephenson, K. G., & South, M. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00783 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“These anxiety symptoms can cause significant additional distress, and have been linked to increased levels of problematic behavior (11, 12), difficulty with decision making (13), and considerable stress on family systems (14).”
BackgroundUnraveling the nature of autism: finding order amid change
Hellendoorn, A., Wijnroks, L., & Leseman, P. P. M. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00359 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Repetitive manipulation of objects may provide children with ASD with feelings of security and a sense of control of an unpredictable and highly variant environment, hence reduce feelings of anxiety or anger ( Leekam et al., 2011; Rodgers et al., 2012).”
Burnley, A., St Clair, M., Bedford, R., Wren, Y., & Dack, C. (2023) · Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders · doi:10.1186/s11689-023-09486-w · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Alaerts, K., Bernaerts, S., Prinsen, J., Dillen, C., Steyaert, J. G., & Wenderoth, N. (2020) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-020-0653-8 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Anxiety characteristics in individuals with Williams syndrome
Royston, R., Oliver, C., Howlin, P., & Waite, J. (2021) · Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1111/jar.12864 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“This trigger could also be considered socially related, which is a surprising finding considering the low reported rates of social anxiety in Williams syndrome (Royston et al., 2017).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialAppleton, H. P., Roberts, J., & Simpson, K. (2019) · Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1080/19315864.2019.1679299 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“This relationship has also been found by Rodgers et al. (2012) and Spiker et al. (2011), with Kerns et al. (2014) suggesting that the presence of a cooccurring disorder is likely to be exhibited through ASD symptom amplification rather than a separate set of behaviors.”
BackgroundBen‐Itzchak, E., Koller, J., & Zachor, D. A. (2020) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-020-00673-0 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
- Authors
- Rodgers, J., Glod, M., Connolly, B., & McConachie, H.
- Affiliations
- University of Newcastle Australia (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Rodgers, J.
- Venue
- Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders
- Published
- 2012-04-17
- Volume
- 42
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 2404-2409
- ISSN
- 0162-3257 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-3432
- OpenAlex
- W2141257736
- Cited by
- 296
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 34 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 6.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Newcastle University ePrints (Newcastle Univesity)
- Funders
- National Institute for Health and Care Research (PB-PG-0408-16069)
- National Institutes of Health
- Research for Patient Benefit Programme
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Child Nutrition and Feeding Issues
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum Disorders
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, anxiety, repetitive behavior, insistence on sameness, children, comorbidities
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Anxiety, Child, Child Development Disorders, Pervasive, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Male, Stereotyped Behavior
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