PROSPECTIVE INVESTIGATION OF MENTAL HEALTH FOLLOWING SEXUAL ASSAULT: Research Article: Mental Health Following Sexual Assault
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: Comorbidity in psychological disorders is common following exposure to a traumatic event. Relatively little is known about the manner in which changes in the symptoms of a given type of psychological disorder in the acute period following a trauma impact changes in symptoms of another disorder. This study investigated the relationship between changes in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and anxiety symptoms in the first 12 weeks following sexual assault. METHODS: Participants were 126 women who had been sexually assaulted in the previous 4 weeks. RESULTS: Lower level mediation analyses revealed that changes in PTSD symptoms had a greater impact on changes in depression and anxiety than vice versa. CONCLUSIONS: The finding highlights the role of PTSD symptoms in influencing subsequent change in other psychological symptoms. These findings are discussed in the context of models detailing the trajectory of psychological disorders following trauma, and clinical implications are considered.
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Prospective studies have reported PTSD prevalence rates of between 12.7% and 45% at 3 months post-rape/sexual assault in women.
“Prospective studies have reported PTSD prevalence rates of between 12.7% and 45% at 3 months post-rape/sexual assault in women (Elklit and Christiansen, 2010;Nickerson et al., 2013).”
From Risk and protective factors affecting the symptom trajectory of posttraumatic stress disorder post-rape (2022) · cites this paper as Nickerson et al., 2013
The majority of longitudinal sexual assault studies have investigated sexual assault in general and not rape or completed rape exclusively.
“It should be noted that the majority of longitudinal sexual assault studies have investigated sexual assault in general and not rape or completed rape exclusively (Elklit and Christiansen, 2013;Nickerson et al., 2013;Möller et al., 2014; Kaysen et al., 2006).”
From Risk and protective factors affecting the symptom trajectory of posttraumatic stress disorder post-rape (2022) · cites this paper as Nickerson et al., 2013
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“psychological distress and higher risk taking behaviours (e.g., binge drinking and unprotected sex; Edwards & Gidycz, 2014; Hamming & Jozkowski, 2013; Littleton et al. 2013; Nickerson et al. 2013; Walsh et al. 2012).”
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Brooker, C., Hughes, E. A., Lloyd‐Evans, B., & Stefanidou, T. (2019) · Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.jflm.2019.101862 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Vizcaíno-Cuenca, R., Romero-Sánchez, M., & Carretero-Dios, H. (2025) · Psychology of women quarterly · doi:10.1177/03616843251330248 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“In fact, victims often experience psychological impacts similar to those of of fl ine sexual violence, including post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, anxiety, self-harm, and suicide (Bates, 2017; Campbell et al., 2009; Nickerson et al., 2013).”
Psychobiological correlates of rape in female adolescents
Bicanic, I. (2014) · Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Woerner, J. I. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/y6uka · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Neilson, E. C., John, J., Gootee, J., Smith, L., Launius, K. N., & Farren, E. (2025) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.70081 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Vizcaíno-Cuenca, R., Carretero‐Dios, H., & Romero-Sánchez, M. (2025) · The Journal of Sex Research · doi:10.1080/00224499.2025.2592624 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…has shown that victims of cyber-sexual violence report psychological impacts similar to those experienced by victims of offline sexual assault (Nickerson et al., 2013) and rape (Campbell et al., 2009), such as anxiety, depression, lower self-esteem, panic attacks, sleep disorders and even…”
Smith, L., George, W. H., & Neilson, E. C. (2024) · Violence and Victims · doi:10.1891/vv-2022-0131 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Khademi, N., Heshmat, F., Khodarahmi, S., Nikbakht, T., & Mihandoust, S. (2022) · Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care · doi:10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_538_21 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“[15] The results of our study showed that phobias in women after rape are significantly which is similar to the results of Nickerson et al.[16] The results of our study showed that rape in women is associated with short‐term and long‐term psychological and psychiatric effects such as phobia, which is consistent with t…”
BackgroundResultFrench Validation of Two Questionnaires Measuring Posttraumatic Cognitions After Sexual Assault
Champagne, A., Sarazin, É., Duchesne, L., Flores-Tremblay, T., Lebel, J., & Belleville, G. (2023) · Journal of Aggression Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1080/10926771.2023.2279987 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“In addition, individuals who have experienced a sexual assault and who developed PTSD frequently present comorbid conditions like depression and anxiety disorders (Nickerson et al., 2013; Rothbaum et al., 1992).”
BackgroundSmith, L., & George, W. H. (2025) · Journal of Sexual Aggression · doi:10.1080/13552600.2025.2490095 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…elevated risk for psychopathology, substance misuse, and difficulties with academic, occupational, and interpersonal functioning (Kilpatrick, 2000; Molstad et al., 2023; Nickerson et al., 2013; Schalk et al., 2023), making sexual aggression (SA) perpetration a significant public health concern.”
Smith, L., Gleason, N., Neilson, E. C., & George, W. H. (2025) · International Journal of Sexual Health · doi:10.1080/19317611.2025.2553095 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“This presents a substantial public health concern considering the myriad social, psychological, and functional sequelae of sexual victimization (Hequembourg et al., 2015; Kilpatrick, 2000; Kilpatrick et al., 2007; Nickerson et al., 2013; Ratner et al., 2003; Sigurvinsdottir & Ullman, 2015).”
Prevalence of Anxiety among Rape Victims
Nahidi, F., Khademi, N., Erisian, M., & purhoseingholi, A. (2016) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Holistische zorg voor slachtoffers van seksueel geweld
Keygnaert, I., van der Gucht, B., Schrijver, L. D., Braeckel, D. V., & Roelens, K. (2018) · Bohn Stafleu van Loghum eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-90-368-1111-8_20 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
I've Seen Enough: Measuring the Toll of Content Moderation on Mental Health
Gauthier, G. M., Ali, E., Asim, A., Cornell-Maier, S., & Zoellner, L. A. (2025) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2511.09813
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The Relationship Between Trauma and Well-Being: Moral Emotions in Sex-Trafficked Women
Scarsella, G. M. (2017)
Resistance & Recovery in the #MeToo Era
Richmond, K. A., & Johnson, N. L. (2021) · Women & Therapy · doi:10.1080/02703149.2021.1961419
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An osteopathic approach to post-traumatic stress disorder in sexually abused women: a case report
Gutiv, A., & Mattatia, J. (2025) · European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1016/j.ejtd.2025.100567
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Epigenetic mechnisms involved in posttraumatic stress disorder
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- Authors
- Nickerson, A., Steenkamp, M., Aerka, I. M., Salters-Pedneault, K., Carper, T. L., Barnes, J. B., & Litz, B. T.
- Affiliations
- Boston University (US)
- Department of Psychology; Eastern Connecticut State University; Willimantic; Connecticut
- University of Central Florida (US)
- Corresponding author
- Nickerson, Angela
- Venue
- Depression and Anxiety
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2012-11-16
- Volume
- 30
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 444-450
- ISSN
- 1091-4269 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1850236376
- Cited by
- 56
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 3.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Locations
- Depression and Anxiety (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Journal of International Crisis and Risk Communication Research (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Sexual Assault and Victimization Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Keywords
- sexual assault, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, anxiety, comorbidities, psychological trauma, women, symptom trajectories, mediation
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Anxiety Disorders, Depression, Depressive Disorder, Female, Humans, Prospective Studies, Rape, Sex Offenses, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, United States, Crime Victims, Young Adult
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